Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter Six: The Immune System: Dr. Sanaa Tork
Chapter Six: The Immune System: Dr. Sanaa Tork
Vaccination
Immunity
The ability of organism to resist infection by any forgein invaders (non-self)
Is an interacting set of specialized cells and proteins designed to identify and destroy foreign
invaders and abnormal substances befor they can damage the body.
C- Soluble factors
include proteins that either attack microbes directly or impede their reproduction. like
interferons which are proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help other cells to
resist viruses (stimulating the production of antiviral proteins that block viral
reproduction)
A-The first lines of defense (Anatomical barriers ):
The natural barriers
On the skin and in the gastrointestinal tract can prevent the colonization of
The normal flora pathogenic bacteria by secreting
Dr. Sanaa Tork toxic substances or by competing with
pathogenic bacteria for nutrients or attachment to cell surfaces.
2. Second line of defense (Cellular barrirs)
• Microbes that breach a mammal’s external barriers are confronted by innate defense
cells (second line of defense or cellular response).
• These are classified as white blood cells (Phagocytes).
• They are found in the interstitial fluid as well as blood vessels
1. Phagocytes:
• They are produced throughout life by the bone marrow. They are stored there before
being distributed around the body in the blood.
• Neutrophils
are a kind of phagocyte and form about 60% of the white cells in the blood. They
travel throughout the body often leaving the blood by squeezing through the walls of
capillaries to the tissues. During an infection they are releases in large numbers from
their stores but they are short-lived cells.
• Macrophages
are also phagocytes but are larger than neutrophils and tend to be found in organs, such
as the lungs, liver, spleen, kidney and lymph-nodes and through the interstitial fluid
rather than remaining in the blood. they leave the bone marrow and travel in the blood
as monocytes, which develop into macrophages once they leave the blood and settle in
the organs, removing any foreign matter found there (eating any bacteria and virus -
infected cells they encounter).
• Macrophages are long-lived cells and play a crucial role initiating immune
responses since they do not destroy pathogens completely, but cut them up to
display antigens that can be recognized by lymphocytes.
• Conclusion
Macrophages : very large white cells that can move around body, or remain in certain
tissues. Long lived, act as scavengers
• ingest bacteria, viruses, dead cells, dust
• most circulate in the blood, lymph and extracellular fluid
• they are attracted to the site of infection by chemicals given off by dying cells
• after ingesting a foreign invader, they “wear” pieces of it called antigens on their cell
membrane receptors – this tells other types of immune system cells what to look for
Complement:
Soluble factors
• Interferon
Interferon is a protein produced by virus-infected cells that inhibits the
synthesis of viral proteins, leading to decreased viral replication. It also can
cause apoptosis of virus-infected cells.
Acute phase proteins
– proteins in the plasma that increase during infection and inflammation
– can be used diagnostically to give an indication of acute inflammation
– An example of an acute phase protein is C-reactive protein, which fixes
complement.
INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Cellular response
1- Inflammatory response:
1- Is a major component of our innate immune system
2- any damage to tissue, whether caused by microorganisms or by physical injury
triggers this response
3- the injury area become red, worm and swollen this reaction is inflammation
Inflammation
The damage cells release chemical alarm signals such as histamine, which is a vasodilator.
This causes localised swelling, redness, heat, pain. Can also cause high temperature, brings
white cells to the area of infection
Fevers have both positive and negative effects on infection and body functions
POSITIVE (moderate fever) NEGATIVE
• indicate a reaction to infection • extreme heat enzyme denaturation
• stimulate phagocytosis and hasten tissue and interruption of normal biochemical
repair reactions
– increases body temperature beyond > 41°C (105°F) could be fatal and
the tolerance of some bacteria requires medical attention, leading
to a condition called septic shock
– decreases blood iron levels which characterized by very high
(Lactoferrin and Transferrin) fever and low blood pressure
Immune system
Acquired Innate
immune system immune system
Skin Inflammation
B-lymphocytes T-lymphocytes Mucous Phagocytosis
membrane Complement
Interferons
Natural killers
2. Acquired immunity found only on vertebrates, is a set of defenses that are activated only
after exposure to pathogens.
3. Once activated , the acquired immune response provides a strong defense against
pathogens that is highly specific (acts against one infectious agent but not another)
4. Acquired immune response has a remarkable memory (it can remember antigen it has
encountered before and react against them)
5. Can amplify certain innate responses such as inflammation and the complement system
6. acquired immunity is usually obtained by natural exposure to antigens but it can also be
achieved by vaccination (vaccine is composed of a harmless variant or part of a disease-
causing microbe such as an inactived bacterial toxin, a dead or weakened microbe, or a
pieces of a microbe)
7. Vaccination also known as immunization, because vaccine stimulates the immune system
to mount specific defense against this harmless antigen, if it is exposed to the actual
microbe, our immune system will respond quickly and effectively
8. For this reason the widespread of vaccination of children has virtually eliminated some
viral diseases such as polio, smallpox and measles.
Induced Immunity (acquired immune response)
•Most antigens are proteins or large polysaccharides on the surface of foreign invaders such
as protein coat molecules of viruses, parts of the capsules and cell walls of bacteria and ;
macromolecules on the surface cells of other kinds of organisms such as protozoan and
parasitic worms or antigenic molecules on blood cells or tissue cells from other individuals
or found dissolved in body fluids like bacterial toxins and bee venom.
•Antibodies (immunoglogulins) – proteins found in the blood plasma that attached to one
particular kind of antigen and helps counter its effects It produced by lymphocytes in
response to antigens
•Antibody usually recognizes and binds to a small surface-exposed region of an antigen that
binds to antigen-binding site of antibody called antigenic determinant or epitope
• The immune system’s ability to defend against an enormous variety of antigens depends
on a process known as clonal selection:
(one particular antigen interacts only with the tiny fraction of lymphocytes bearing
receptors specific to that antigen, once activated by the antigen, these few selected cell
proliferate, forming a clone (genetically identical population) of thousands of cells all
specific for the stimulating antigen)
this antigen-driven cloning of lymphocytes- clonal selection is the vital step in the
acquired immune response against infection
• Steps of clonal selection
1- The first time an antigen enters the body and is
swept into the lymph node
2- antigenic determinants on its surface bind to the
few B cells that have complementary receptors
When the produced memory cells activated by the second exposure to the same antigen,
they initiate the secondary immune response, this response is faster and stronger than the
first, the selected memory cells multiply quickly, producing a large second clone of
lymphocytes, produces very high levels of antibodies than the first response, effector
cells are often more effective against antigen than those produced during the primary
response
• Lymphocytes are white blood cells, smaller than phagocytes. They have a large nucleus
that fills most of the cell., like all blood cells, lymphocytes originate from stem cells
before birth in bone marrow, there are two types of lymphocyte
1. B lymphocytes (B cells) continue developing in the bone marrow until they are mature
and then spread throughout the body concentrating in lymph nodes and the spleen.
2. T lymphocytes ( T cells ) leave the bone marrow and collect in the thymus where they
mature. Only mature lymphocytes can carry out immune responses. Both types of
lymphocytes are responsible for the acquired immune system
• many different types of B and T lymphocyte develop, Perhaps many millions, certain
genes in the lymphocyte cell are turn on , this leads the cell to synthesize molecules of
specific protein, incorporated into the plasma membrane. The molecules are antigen
receptors, capable of binding one specific type of antigen, each type is specialized to
respond to one antigen, giving the immune system as a whole the ability to respond to
almost any type of pathogen that enters the body.
• Each T and B cells has about 100 000 antigen receptors on a single cell and all the
receptors on a single cell are identical- they all recognize the same antigen
• In case of B cells , the receptors are almost identical to the particular antibody that the B
cell will secrete.
• When mature, both B and T cells circulate between the blood and the lymph. This
ensures that they are distributed throughout the body so that they come into contact with
any pathogens and with each other.
• Acquired immune responses depend on B and T cells interacting with each other to give
an effective defense.
• When a B and T cell within a lymphatic organ first confronts the specific antigen it is
programmed to recognize, it differentiates further and becomes a fully mature component
of the immune system.
Dr. Sanaa Tork
Two types of acquired immune response:
Thus T cells play a part in both the cell- mediated and humoral immune response
• The antibody- producing B-cells of the humoral response make up one arm of the
acquired immune response network
• Humoral defense system identifies and helps destroy invaders that are in our blood,
lymph or interstitial fluid (outside our body cell)
• B cell respond to free antigens present on the surface of the body fluids, T cells
respond only to antigens present on the surface of the body’s own cells
• B lymphocytes make antibodies = immunoglobulins
Macrophage
Phagocytoses pathogen
and displays antigens on 1st meeting a pathogen, this
surface process takes 10-14 days
Dr. Sanaa Tork Memory B cell= subesquent
meetings, takes about 5 days
T lymphocytes
• Mature T cells have specific cell surface receptors called T cell receptors.
• T cells are activated when they encounter this antigen in contact with another host
cell.
• Sometimes this is a macrophage that has engulfed a pathogen and cut it up to expose
the pathogen's surface molecules or it may be a body cell that has been invaded by a
pathogen and is similarly displaying the antigen on its plasma membrane as a kind of
“signal” . Those T cells that have matching receptors respond to the antigen by
dividing.
Antigen
X
Killer T-cells release
perforin pores
Clones of killer T-cell
attach to antigen
X
Normal cell
Memory T-
cells stay in
Suppressor T-cells
circulation
turn off immune
response Dr. Sanaa Tork
Dr. Sanaa Tork
Duration of immunity
Memory B-cells circulate for a long time. If the same pathogen infects the
body again, these B-cells can produce large amounts of specific antibody
very quickly. This is why you usually don’t suffer from the same infection
twice.
Memory T-cells survive a long time and trigger an immune response
Immune disorders
•Sometimes the body produces antibodies against its own tissues e.g. autoimmune
diseases e.g. rhumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, SCID (bubble boy disease),
Asthma
In Lupus, for example, B cells make antibodies against a wide range of self molecules
such as histones and DNA released by the normal breakdown of body cells.
Lupus is characterized by skin rashes, fever, arthritis and kidney mal-function
In multiple sclerosis, T cells react against the myelin sheath , peoples with MS has a
number of serious neurological abnormalities
•In Crohn disease, a chronic inflammation of the digestive tract, may be caused by
an autoimmune reaction against normal flora that inhabit the intestinal tract.
•Allergies occur when the body reacts to antigens in our surrounding e.g.
peanut
•Antigens that cause allergies are called allergins
•Tumours – in most cases the body recognises tumours as being bad, because they
express abnormal molecules on the cell surface. However sometimes the body doesn’t
notice and cancers can develop