General Histology

What is Anatomy?
• Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s
structure
• Branches of Anatomy
– Gross: Large structures
– Surface: Landmarks
– Histology: Cells and Tissues
– Developmental: Structures change through life
– Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth
Anatomical Directions
• Anatomical position
• Regions
– Axial vs. Appendicular
• Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative!
– Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
– Medial vs. Lateral
– Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
– Superficial vs. Deep
– Proximal vs. Distal
• Anatomical Planes
– Frontal = Coronal
– Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section
– Sagittal
The Animal Cell Structure
 Tissues: groups of cells closely associated that have a
similar structure and perform a related function

• Four types of tissue

– Epithelial
– Connective
– Muscle
– Nervous
• Most organs contain all 4 types
• Tissue has non-living extracellular material
between its cells
Tissue Types in the Human
ΠEpithelial
Œprimarily used for protection
ΠConnective
Œprimarily used for support
ΠNerve
Œprimarily used for control
ΠMuscle
Œprimarily used for movement
EPITHELIAL TISSUE: sheets of cells
cover a surface or line a cavity
(tissue type #1)

• Functions
– Protection
– Secretion
– Absorption
– Ion Transport
– Slippery Surface
Characteristics of Epithelium

• Cellularity
• Specialized Contacts
• Polarity
– Apical vs. Basal
• Supported by Connective Tissue
• Avascular
• Innervated
• Regenerative
 Classification of Epithelium-based on
number of layers and cell shape
• Layers
– Simple
– Stratified
– Psuedostratified
• Stratified layers
characterized by shape
of apical layer
• Shapes
– Squamous
– Cuboidal
– Columnar
Pg 71
– Transitional
 Naming Epithelial Tissues
• Epithelial tissues are named in the following
manner:
First word: Number of layers (simple,
stratified, pseudostratified)
Second word: Shape of cell (squamous,
cuboidal, columnar)
Third word: Describes the apical surface if
there are structures (cilia or microvilli) or
materials present (keratin).
From the name given you can tell much about the tissue. For example
pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelial. What can you tell from the name
about the tissue?
1. It is one cell- layer thick. 2. It is column shaped. 3. It has cilia on its apical surface.
 Types of Epithelial Tissues

• Simple squamous: This

type is found lining blood
vessels and is called
endothelium. It is also in
the alveoli or airs of of
the lungs. This tissue
allows the rapid exchange
of materials by diffusion
and osmosis from cell to
cell.
 Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Stratified squamous: This
type of epithelium is
present in areas where
there is wear and tear on
the tissue which are
constantly having cells
sloughed away or being
rubbed off by abrasion.
There are two types of
stratified squamous.
Keratinized and Non-
keratinized. Keratin is a
layer a waterproof protein
on the apical surface of
stratified squamous
keratinized epithelium
(skin).
Mouth, throat, esophagus, urethra, skin (keratinized)
 Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Stratified squamous: Stratified squamous epithelial
non-keratinized lines the oral cavity and the
esophagus and the vagina of the female
reproductive system.
 Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Stratified squamous: Stratified squamous
epthithelium keratinized Keratin is a layer a
waterproof protein on the apical surface of stratified
squamous keratinized epithelium (skin).
 Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Simple cuboidal: Simple cuboidal cells are common
in secretory glands and in the collecting tubules
where they are involved with reabsorption of
materials as urine is being produced.
Kidney tubules, glands, lining of terminal bronchioles, etc.
 Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Simple columnar: Simple columnar is located in various areas
of the body. It is commonly found in the lining of the small
and large intestine where it is involved with absorption of
molecules from digested food and re-absorption of water. In
the small intestine the apical surface of these cells have
microvilli present on their surface and specialized gland cells
called goblet cells which produce and secrete mucus.
microvilli on apical surface
Glands, bronchioles, stomach, intestines, bile ducts, etc.
 Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Pseudostratified columnar ciliated: This tissue appears to
be stratified but is actually one layer of irregularly shaped
cells. The apical surface of these cells have tiny, hair-like
projections called cilia, which are involved with the
movement across the surface of the cells. This epithelial
tissue also has the mucus secreting goblet cells present.
This tissue forms the lining of the trachea, bronchi, and
lining of the Fallopian tubes (oviducts) of female.
Lines nasal cavity & sinuses, auditory tubes, trachea, bronchi
Sweat gland ducts, salivary gland ducts, etc.
Mammary gland ducts, larynx, urethra (males)
Bladder lining, ureters, and superior urethra
Features of Apical Surface of Epithelium
Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
 Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane of
apical epithelial cell
 Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia: (ex) respiratory tubes
 Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane
 Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
Flagella: (ex) spermatoza
 Extra long cilia
 Moves cell
 Features of Lateral Surface of Epithelium
• Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:
– Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate
– Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
– Cell Junctions
• Desmosomes-adhesive spots on lateral sides linked by
proteins/filaments, holds tissues together
• Tight Junctions-at apical area, plasma membrane of
adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
• Gap junction- spot-like junction occurring anywhere
made of hollow cylinders of protein, lets
small molecules pass
Desomosomes

Pg 80
 Features of the Basal Surface of Epithelium

• Basement membrane = Sheet between the epithelial and

connective tissue layers
– Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
– Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet Made of
proteins
• Superficial layer
• Acts as a selective filter
• Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells
– Reticular fiber layer
• Deeper layer
• Support
 Glands: epithelial cells that make and secrete a
water-based substance w/proteins

• Exocrine Glands
– Secrete substance onto body surface or
into body cavity
– Have ducts (simple vs. compound)
– Unicellular (goblet cells) or
Multicellular (tubular, alveolar,
tubuloalveolar)
– (ex) salivary, mammary,
pancreas, liver

Goblet cell in small intestine

 Glands: epithelial cells that make and secrete a
water-based substance w/proteins

• Endocrine Glands
– Secrete product into blood stream
– Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
surrounded by secretory cells
– Hormones travel to target organ to increase
response (excitatory)
– No ducts
– (ex) pancreas, adrenal,
pituitary, thyroid
Thyroid gland: hormone in follicles (F)
released into capillaries (C)
4 Types of Connective Tissue

1) Connective Tissue Proper

2) Cartilage
3) Bone Tissue
4) Blood
 Connective Tissue (CT):
most abundant and diverse tissue
(tissue type #2)

• Four Classes
• Functions include connecting, storing & carrying
nutrients, protection, fight infection
• CT contains large amounts of non-living
extracellular matrix
• Some types vascularized
 1) Connective Tissue Proper
• Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT
• Loose Areolar Tissue
– Underneath epithelial tissue
– Functions
• Support and bind to other tissue
• Hold body fluids
• Defends against infection
• Stores nutrients as fat
– Each function performed by different kind of fiber
in tissue
 Connective Tissue
• Matrix
–Ground substance
–Fibers
• Cells
Connective Tissue
Œ Matrix - “non-living” component of connective tissue
ΠGround substance
ΠProteoglycan aggregates - pine tree shaped molecules
Œ Glycosaminoglycans - neg charged binds Na+ & K+ ….. attract H20
ŒHyaluronic Acid - slippery polysaccharride
ΠChondronectin, Osteonectin, etc.
Œ forms viscous “adhesive gel” in tissues
ΠFluid - Contains gasses & nutrients
ΠMinerals РI.E. Calcium salts

ΠFibers
ΠCollagen, Elastin, and Reticular Fibers
 Fibers in Connective Tissue
• Fibers For Support
– Reticular: form networks for structure & support
(ex) cover capillaries
– Collagen: strongest, most numerous, provide tensile
strength
(ex) dominant fiber in ligaments
– Elastic: long + thin, stretch and retain shape
(ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage
 In Connective Tissue Proper

• Fibroblasts: cells that produce all fibers in CT,

produce + secrete protein subunits to make
them, produce ground matrix
• Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid: derived from blood in
CT proper; medium for nutrients, waste +
oxygen to travel to cells; found in ground
matrix
• Ground Matrix (substance): part of extra-
cellular material that holds and absorbs
interstitial fluid, jelly-like with sugar & protein
molecules
 Defense from Infection

• Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first defense

• Cells travel to CT in blood
– Macrophages-eat foreign particles
– Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for
destruction
– Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for inflammation
response
– White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils-
fight infection
• Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading
microorganisms
 Areolar Connective Tissue Model

Histological slide
Pg 85
 Specialized Loose CT Proper
• Adipose tissue-loaded with adipocytes, highly
vascularized, high metabolic activity
– Insulates, produces energy, supports
• (eg) in hypodermis under skin

• Reticular CT-contains only reticular fibers

– Forms caverns to hold free cells
• (eg) bone marrow, holds blood cells
– Forms internal “skeleton” of some organs
• (eg) lymph nodes, spleen
Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Contains more collagen
• Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
• Regular vs. Irregular
– Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull
• (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
– Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions
• (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones

Dense regular Dense irregular

Components of CT Proper Summarized

Cells Matrix

Fibroblasts Gel-like ground

substance
Defense cells Collagen fibers
-macrophages Reticular fibers
-white blood cells
Elastic fibers
Adipocytes
 2) Cartilage
• Chondroblasts produce cartilage
• Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells
• More abundant in embryo than adult
• Firm, Flexible
• Resists compression
– (eg) trachea, meniscus
• 80% water
• Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/low oxygen)
• NOT Innervated
• Perichondrium-dense, irregular connective tissue around
cartilage
– growth/repair of cartilage
– resists expansion during compression of cartilage
Cartilage in the Body
• Three types:
– Hyaline
• most abundant
• fibrils in matrix
• support via flexibility/resilience
• (eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
– Elastic
• many elastic fibers in matrix too
• great flexibility
• (eg) external ear, epiglottis
– Fibrocartilage
• resists both compression and
tension
• (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus

Pg 125
 Histology of Cartilage

• Hyaline Cartilage
 Histology of Cartilage

• Elastic Cartilage
 Histology of Cartilage

• Fibrocartilage
Components of Cartilage Summarized

Cells Matrix

Chondrocytes Gel-like ground

substance
Chondroblasts Lots of water
(in growing cartilage)

Some have collagen and

elastic fibers
 3) Bone Tissue:(a bone is an organ)
• Well-vascularized
• Function:
– support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs
– protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
– mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate (inorganic component)
– movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
– blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow
• Osteoblasts: secrete organic part of bone matrix
• Osteocytes: mature bone cells, maintain bone matrix
• Periosteum: external layer of CT surrounds bone
• Endosteum: internal layer of CT lines cavities and covers trabeculae
Pg 128
Bone Anatomy: Compact bone

• Compact bone: dense, external layer

– Haversian system = osteon
• long, cylindrical structures run parallel to long axis of bone
• within each osteon, groups of concentric tubes (lamella)
• Lamella: layer of bone matrix all fibers run in same direction
• fibers on each lamella runs in opposite directions to one near it
• Haversian canal-runs through center of osteon, contain blood vessels and
nerves
• Interstitial Lamella- pieces of bone matrix between osteon
• Osteocytes between osteons
 Haversian System = Osteon

osteon

lamella

Pg 132

lamella

Pg 131
 Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone

Pg 130

• Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal layer

– Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone form
honeycomb
• each made of several layers of lamellae + osteocytes
• no canal for vessels
• space filled with bone marrow
• not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s center
 1
2

Compact Bone 2

Spongy Bone 1

Lamella 3

Haversian canal 4
 Histology of Bone

• “Ground” Compact Bone

Components of Bone Tissue Summarized

Cells Matrix

Osteocytes Gel-like ground

substance calcified with
inorganic salts
Osteoblasts Collagen fibers
 4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue

• Function:
– Transports waste, gases, nutrients, hormones
through cardiovascular system
– Helps regulate body temperature
– Protects body by fighting infection
• Derived from mesenchyme
• Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
– Occurs in red bone marrow
– In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur
 Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
most abundant in blood
no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body

Platelets = Thrombocytes: fragments of cytoplasm

plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting

Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types

fight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies
 Histology of Blood and Vessel
• Blood Smear
Histology of Blood Vessels

Artery Vein
Components of Blood Summarized
Cells Matrix

Erythrocytes Plasma
(red blood cells) (liquid matrix)

Leukocytes NO fibers
(white blood cells)

Platelets
 Muscle Tissue (tissue type #3)

• Muscle cells/fibers
– Elongated
– Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin
• FUNCTION
– Movement
– Maintenance of posture
– Joint Stabilization
– Heat Generation
• Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
 Skeletal Muscle Tissue
(each skeletal muscle is an organ)
• Cells
– Long and cylindrical, in bundles
– Multinucleate
– Obvious Striations
• Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary
• Connective Tissue Components:
– Endomysium-surrounds fibers
– Perimysium-surrounds bundles
– Epimysium-surrounds the muscle
• Attached to bones, fascia, skin
pg 235
• Origin & Insertion
 Cardiac Muscle
• Cells
– Branching, chains of cells
– Single or Binucleated
– Striations
– Connected by Intercalated discs
• Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary
• Myocardium-heart muscle
– Pumps blood through vessels
• Connective Tissue Component
– Endomysium: surrounding cells
Pg 244
 Smooth Muscle Tissue
Cells
Single cells, uninucleate
No striations
Smooth Muscle-Involuntary
2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)
Lines hollow organs, blood vessels
Connective Tissue Component
Endomysium: surrounds cells

Pg 246
 Histology of Muscle Tissue
SKELETAL

SMOOTH

CARDIAC
 Nervous Tissue

• Neurons: specialized nerve cells conduct

impulses
– Cell body, dendrite, axon
• Interneuron: between motor & sensory
neuron in CNS
• Characterized by:
– No mitosis (cell replication)
– Longevity
– High metabolic rate
pg 322
 Nervous Tissue: control
• Support cells (= Glial): nourishment,
insulation, protection
– Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within
ganglia
– Schwann cells-surround axons
– Microglia-phagocytes
– Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths
around axons
– Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord,
ciliated,help circulate CSF
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves
 • Synapse: cell junction where neurons
Neuronal communicate
Anatomy • One direction: presynaptic neuron,
postsynaptic neuron
• Presynaptic neuron
– Synaptic vesicles fuses w/presynaptic
membrane
– Neurotransmitters released,
– diffuse across
synaptic cleft, bind to
postsynaptic membrane
 ٠Creates impulse
(action potential) in
that neuron
٠Cycle repeats

pg 325
Anatomy of Nerve
Histology of Neuron
 Integumentary System

• Skin
– Epidermis = epithelium
– Dermis = connective tissue
• Hypodermis = connective tissue
• Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis
– Hair follicles
– Sweat and Sebaceous glands
– Nails
 Integumentary System

• Functions
– Protection
• Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
– Cushions & insulates deeper organs
– Prevention of water loss
– Thermoregulation
– Excretion
• Salts, urea, water
– Sensory reception
Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum corneum
Dead keratinocytes

Stratum lucidum
Dead keratinocytes

Stratum granulosum
Keratinocytes
Tonofilaments
Lamellated & keratohyaline granules

Stratum spinosum
Keratinocytes
Tonofilaments
Langerhans cells

Stratum basale
Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Merkel receptors
 Highly innervated
Dermis Highly vascularized
Collagen & Elastic fibers
Many cell types
Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Mast cells
White blood cells
Papillary layer (20%)
 Areolar CT
 Hair follicles
Reticular layer (80%)
 Dense Irregular CT
 Glands
 Sebaceous glands
 Sweat glands
 Smooth muscle fibers
 Hypodermis
• Also called superficial fascia
• Areolar & Adipose Connective Tissue
• Functions
– Store fat
– Anchor skin to muscle, etc.
– Insulation