Chapter 5 – Signal Encoding and

Modulation Techniques

1/21
 Analog Data, Digital Signal

 Digitization is conversion of analog data into

digital data which can then:
 be transmitted using NRZ-L (digital signal)
 be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
 be converted to analog signal by using modulation
techniques (ASK, PSK, FSK)

signal

2/21
 Codec (Coder-decoder)

 Analog to digital conversion done using a

codec (coder-decoder). Two techniques:
1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
2. Delta Modulation (DM)

3/21
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Sampling Theorem:
“If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate
higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the
samples contain all information in original signal”
Samples can be used to reconstruct the original
signal
e.g., 100-4000Hz voice data, requires 2*4000=8000
sample per sec
These are analog samples, called Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM) samples
To convert to digital, each of these analog
samples must be assigned a binary code
4/21
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Example

 The signal is assumed to be band-limited with bandwidth B

 The PAM samples are taken at a rate of 2B, or once every
Ts=1/(2B) seconds
 Each PAM sample
is quantized into
one of 16 levels
 Each sample is
then represented
by 4 bits.
 8 bits→256 level
→better quality
 4000Hz voice→
(8000sample/s)*
8bits/sample=
64Kbps
5/21
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Block Diagram

 By quantizing the PAM samples, the resulting signal is an

approximation of the original one
 This effect is known as quantization error or quantization
noise
 The Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (SNR) for quantizing noise:
SNRdB  6.02n  1.76 dB, n : number of bits
6/21
 Linear Versus Non-Linear Encoding
 Linear Encoding (uniform quantization):
 Equally spaced quantization steps
 Lower amplitude values are relatively more distorted
 Non-Linear Encoding (non-uniform quantization):
 Non-equally spaced quantization steps
 Large number of quantization steps for signals with low amplitude, and smaller
number of quantizing steps for signals with large amplitude

7/21
 Companding (Compressing-Expanding)
 Instead of non-linear encoding, use companding+linear
encoding
 Companding gives more gain to weak signals than to strong
signals on the input. At output, the reverse operation is
performed
Y
X Compressing Expanding X

Normal value ( X ) compressed (Y  10 * log 10 X ) Expanded ( X  10Y /10 )

X  10 Y  10 * log 10 10  10 X  1010 /10  10
X  100 Y 10 * log 10 100  20 X  10 20 /10  100
X  1000 Y 10 * log 10 1000  30 X  1030 /10  1000
X  10000 Y  10 * log 10 10000  40 X  10 40 /10  10000

8/21
 Delta Modulation (DM)
 An analog input is approximated by a staircase function that moves up or
down by one quantization level () at each sampling interval (Ts).
 A 1 is generated if the staircase function is to go up during the next interval;
a 0 is generated
otherwise.
 The staircase
function tracks
the original
waveform

9/45
 Delta Modulation Operation
 For transmission:
 the analog input is compared
to the most recent value of the
approximating staircase function.
Staircase
 If the value of the analog input
exceeds that of the staircase
function, a 1 is generated;
otherwise, a 0 is generated.
 Thus, the staircase
is always changed in the
direction of the input signal.
 For reception:
 The output of the
DM process is therefore a binary
sequence that can be used at the
receiver to reconstruct the
staircase function.
10/21
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Versus Delta Modulation (DM)
DM has simplicity compared to PCM
DM has worse SNR compared to PCM
PCM requires more bandwidth
eg., for good voice reproduction with PCM
 want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
 need 8000 sample/s x 7bits/sample = 56kbps
PCM is more preferred than DM for analog
signals

11/21
 Analog Data, Analog Signal

Modulate carrier signal with analog data (voice)

Why modulate analog signals?
 higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
 permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
Types of modulation
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)
analog data modulated signal
Modulator s (t ) m(t )
m(t ) s (t ) Demodulator
carrier signal
Ac cos(2f c t   )
12/21
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

AM is the simplest form of analog modulation

Used in AM radio with carrier 0.535 MHz  f c  1.605 MHz
Used also in analog TV broadcasting
Analog data modulates a carrier signal
Mathematically, the AM wave can be expresses as
s (t )  [1  na x(t )] cos(2f c t )
where
na x(t )  m(t ) : input data signal
0  na  1 : Modulation index
f c : carrier frequency
13/21
 Time Domain description of AM Signal
 Derive an expression for the AM wave if the input signal:
m(t )  na cos(2f mt ), f m  f c
s (t )  [1  m(t )] cos(2f c t )
 [1  na cos(2f m t )] cos(2f c t )

 Envelope of AM signal:
[1  na cos(2f m t )]
max . when cos(2f m t )  1
min . when cos(2f m t )  1
Amax 1  na

Amin 1  na
Amax  Amin
na 
Amax  Amin
na *100 % : % Modulation
11/45
Frequency Domain description of AM Signal
The Double SideBand Transmitted Carrier (DSBTC):
s (t )  [1  na cos(2f m t )] cos(2f c t )
 cos(2f c t )  na cos(2f m t ) cos(2f c t )
1
employing the trigonometric identity : cos( ) cos( )  [cos(   )  cos(   )]
2
na
s (t )  cos(2f c t )  [cos(2 ( f c  f m )t )  cos(2 ( f c  f m )t )]
2
S( f )

Carrier
Lower Side Band Upper Side Band
(LSB) (USB)

f
0 fc  fm fc fc  fm
15/21
Frequency Domain description of AM Signal
 Consider a voice signal m(t) with a
bandwidth that extend from 300Hz
to 3000Hz being modulated on
a 60 KHz Carrier

Bandwidth  B  3KHz
carrier f c  60 KHz

The resulting signal contains :

Upper SideBand : 60 .3KHz  63 KHz
Lower SideBand : 57 KHz  59 .7 KHz
Carrier at 60 KHz

11/45
 Variations of AM signal
Double Side Band Transmitted carrier (DSBTC)
wast of power as the carrier is transmitted with the side
bands
wast of bandwidth as both upper and lower side bands are
transmitted (each side band contains the complete spectrum
of the message signal m(t) ): Transmitted bandwidth=BT=2B
Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
Less power is required as no carrier is transmitted
wast of bandwidth as both upper and lower side bands are
transmitted: Transmitted bandwidth=BT=2B
Single Side Band (SSB)
Less power is required as no carrier is transmitted
Less bandwidth as one side band is transmitted: BT=B
17/21
 Angle Modulation
 Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM) are
special cases of angle modulation
 Used in FM radio with carrier 88 MHz  f c  108 MHz
 The angle modulated signal is expressed as:
s(t )  Ac cos(2f c t   (t ))
 Phase Modulation (PM): - Example: find s(t) if
 (t )  n p m(t )  (t )  n p cos(2f m t )
where 
n p : phase Modulation index s(t )  Ac cos[2f c t  n p cos(2f m t )]
m(t ) : input message signal 
Max. phase deviation  n p Am  n p
Max. phase deviation  n p Am
where Am is the max . of m(t )
18/21
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 The angle modulated signal is expressed as:
s(t )  Ac cos(2f c t   (t ))
 FM when: - Example: find s(t) if
d (t ) d (t )
 n f m(t )  n f sin(2f m t )
dt dt
n f : frequency Modulation index
The frequency at any time :
d

  (t )   n f sin(2f m t )dt
2f i (t )  [2f c t   (t )] nf
dt  cos(2f m t )
 f i (t )  f c  n f m(t ) / 2 2f m


nf
Max. freq . deviationF  n f Am / 2 s (t )  cos[2f t  cos(2f m t ) ]
2f m
c
where Am is the max . of m(t )
19/21
Transmitted Bandwidth for AM, PM and FM

 Transmitted bandwidth for AM:

BT  2 B
where B is the message signal bandwidth

 Transmitted bandwidth for PM and FM:

BT  2(   1) B
where
n p Am for PM

   n f Am
 2B for FM


 Thus, both PM and FM require greater bandwidth than AM

20/21
AM, PM, FM

21/21