if any one or more properties of a system

change. Some of the common processes are

isometric, isothermal, isentropic, isobar, etc.
1. V1 = V2
2. P1/P2 = T1/T2
3. Q or Heat = mCv (T2-T1)
4. W or work = 0
5. ∆h = mCp(T2-T1)
6. ∆U = Q
7. ∆S = mCv ln(P2/P1) = mCv ln(T2/T1)
1. T2 = T1
2. P1V1 = P2V2
3. Q or Heat = mRT ln (V2/V1) = P1V1 ln(P1/P2)
4. W or work = Q
5. ∆h = 0
6. ∆U = 0
7. ∆S = mR ln (V2/V1) = mR ln(P1/P2) = Q/T
1. PVk = C ; S1 = S2
2. P1V1k = P2V2k
T2/T1 = (V1/V2)k-1 ; T2/T1 = (P2/P1)k-1/k
3. Q or Heat = 0
𝑃2𝑉2 −𝑃1𝑉1 𝑚𝑅 (𝑇2 −𝑇1)
4. W or work = =
1−𝑘 1−𝑘
5. ∆h = mCp(T2-T1)
6. ∆U = mCv(T2-T1)
7. ∆S = 0
1. P1 = P2
2. V1/V2 = T1/T2
3. Q or Heat = mCp(T2-T1)
4. W or work = P(V2-V1) = mR (T2-T1)
5. ∆h = mCp(T2-T1)
6. ∆U = mCv(T2-T1)
7. ∆S = mCp ln(T2/T1) = mCp ln (V2/V1)
occurs when a certain mass of a particular
state passes through a series of processes
and returns to its original state.
the mass flow rate is constant all through-out the
flow.

Example: turbine

m1 = m2
A1Velocity1ρ1 = A2Velocity2ρ2
the volume flow rate is maintained.
the velocity of the substance is held to a
constant velocity.
is the capacity to produce an effect, the various
form in which it appears can be defined with
precision or simply the capacity to do work. It is a
scalar quantity.
1Btu = 778 ft-lb
1 Btu = 1.055 KJ
1 Btu = 0.252 Kcal
1 Kcal = 4.187 KJ
1KJ = 1000 N.m

Power Conversion:
1 hp= 0.746 KW
= 550 ft-lb/s
= 2545 BTU/hr
BTU – is the quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of 1 lb of water by
1oF from 600F to 610F.
 is the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1oC from
15.6oC to16.6oC.
often shortened to specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy
required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance
by a unit of temperature. For example, the heat energy required to
raise water’s temperature one kelvin degree (equal to 1 degree
Celsius) is 4186 joules per kilogram
 The specific heat capacity represents the
amount of energy required to raise 1 kg by
1oC, and can be thought of as the ability of a
substance to absorb heat. Therefore the SI
units of specific heat capacity are kJ/kg K
(kJ/kg oC). Water has a very large specific
heat capacity (4.19 kJ/kg oC) compared with
many fluids.
 Water is a good heat carrier!
Constant volume specific heat (Cv)- is the
change of molecular internal energy u for a
unit mass per degree of change of
temperature when the end states are
equilibrium states of the same volume.

Constant pressure specific heat (Cp)- is the

change of enthalpy h for a unit mass
between two equilibrium states of the same
pressure per change of temperature.
 is the ratio between the constant pressure
specific heat capacity and the constant volume
specific heat.

k = cp/cv

Cp of air = 1.0 KJ/kg-K Cp of water = 4.187 KJ/kg-K

Cv of air = 0.171 Btu/lb –OR Cv of water = 1 Btu/lb -OR
1. cp = cv + R
2. R = cv(k-1)
3. R = cp (k-1)/k
The amount of heat needed to heat a subject
from one temperature level to an other can
be expressed as:
Q = mcp dT
where
Q = amount of heat (kJ)
cp = specific heat capacity (kJ/kg.K)
m = mass (kg)
dT = temperature difference between hot and
cold side (K)
Consider the energy needed to heat 1.0 kg of
water from 0 oC to 100 oC when the specific
heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kg K:

Q = (4.19 kJ/kg.K) (1.0 kg) ((100 oC) - (0 oC))

= 419 (kJ)
 is the ratio between the universal gas constant and the molecular weight of the substance.

R = 8.314/M , KJ/(kg-k) R = 1545/M , ft-lbf/(lbm-oR)

Where:
M = number of moles

Example:
Ammonia: NH3 (M=17)
Carbon Dioxide: CO2 (M=44)
Oxygen: O2 (M=32)
Air: (M = 28.97)
1.

Air is compressed in a diesel engine from an

initial pressure of 13psia and a temperature of
120degF to one-twelfth of its original volume.
Calculate the final temperature in degF,
assuming compression to be adiabatic.
2.
What horsepower is needed to isothermally
compress 800 ft3 of air per minute from
14.7psia to 120psia?
3.

𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
A perfect gas has a value of R = 58.8
𝑙𝑏𝑚 −𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑅
and k = 1.26. If 20 BTU are added to 5 lb of
this gas at constant volume when the initial
temperature is 90degF, find the final
temperature in degF.
4.

Determine the average Cp value in KJ/kg-K of

a gas, if 522 KJ/kg of heat is necessary to raise
the temperature from 300K to 800K making the
pressure constant.
 - equation of state of ideal gas. It is the behavior
of gas in many conditions.

PV = mRT

Where:
P=absolute pressure R = universal gas constant
V = volume T= absolute temperature
M = mass
1. P1V1 = P2V2 , T = constant
Developed by Robert Boyle

2. V1/V2 = T1/T2 , P = constant

Developed by Jacques Charles

3. P1/P2 = T1/T2 , V = constant

Developed by Jacques Charles

4. P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 the combined gas law

1.
A volume of 450cc of air is measured at a
pressure of 740 mmHgabs and a temperature
of 200degC. What is the volume in cc at 760
mmHg and 0degC?
2.

If air is at pressure P of 3200 lb/ft2 and at a

temperature T of 800 degR, what is the
specific volume in ft3/lb?
3.

A bicycle has a volume of 600 cm3. It is

inflated with CO2 to pressure of 80 psi at
20degC. How many grams of CO2 are
contained in the tire?