Pressure Filters

Inspection windows or Manhole

I
• Untreated water Raw Water
4
Sand Gutter

Gravel
3
0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000 Central Drains

2 Base concrete

• Treated Water Laterals

Horizontal Pressure filters

 Pressure Filter
Pressure filters are just like a small rapid gravity filters placed in a closed
vessels, and through which water to be treated is passed under pressure.
Since water is forced through such filters at a pressure greater than the
atmospheric pressure, it is necessary that these filters are located in an air
tight vessels.

Construction of pressure Filters: The filter vessel may be installed either

in a horizontal or in a vertical position, depending upon which, they may be
classified as horizontal or vertical pressure filters. Steel cylinders are used
as pressure vessels. Their diameters generally vary between 1.5 to 3.0 m,
and their lengths or height may vary from 3.5 to 8.0 m. Inspection windows
are provided at the top for inspection purposes.

Working and Operation of Pressure Filters: A pressure filter is operated

like an ordinary rapid gravity filter except that the raw coagulated water is
neither flocculated nor sedimented before it enters the filter. The flocculation
takes place inside the pressure filter itself.
 Pressure Filter
The flocculation takes place inside the pressure filter itself.

• The coagulated water under pressure enters the filter vessels through the inlet
valve 1, and the filtered water comes out of the outlet valve 2. Hence, under this
condition, only these two valves are kept open and all other valves are kept closed.
The commonly used coagulant is alum and is kept in a container connected to the
influent line to the filter. Little time is thus available for this coagulant to get mixed
properly or to form flocs outside the filter vessels. The cleaning of the filter may
carried out by backwashing . The compressed air may also be used if designed in
order to agitate the sand grains. For cleaning, the inlet and outlet valves (Valve
1and 2) are closed and the wash water valves 3 and wash water gutter valve 4 are
open. After completion of cleaning these valves may be closed, and raw supplies
restored. However, the filtered supplies should not be collected for a little time
and wasted through valve 4. These filters are cleaned when loss of head due to
clogging exceed a certain fixed value.
 Pressure Filters
These filters may required slightly more frequent cleaning as compared to that required by
rapid gravity filters, because the impurities which removed in the sedimentation
tank in case of rapid gravity filters, are also removed by the by the filter in case of
pressure filter. In present pressure filters the automatic cleaning is done at certain
intervals.

Filtration Rate and suitability: The pressure filters can yield filtered water at
rates 2 to 5 times more that of rapid gravity filter. Such filters are less efficient in
removing bacteria and turbidities. Its quality is poor and are not generally used for
public use. As filter provides a compact and an easy handling equipment, they
are preferred for treating smaller quantity of comparatively cleaner water. Hence
they may be installed for colonies, individual industries, private estates, swimming
pools and railways stations etc. Its rate of filtration is between 6000 to 15000
liters/ hr-m^2 of filter area. The lower value is used for domestic, medium for
industries and high for swimming pools.
 Disinfection
• Disinfection is a process of killing the disease causing
microorganisms known as pathogenic microorganisms. These
pathogenic microorganisms may be bacteria, viruses and amebic
cysts. The chemicals used for disinfection is known as disinfectants.
Sterilization is the process of killing of both pathogenic and non
pathogenic microorganisms.

• Disinfectant must have the following properties.

• They must destroy all pathogenic bacteria in water within a

practicable period of time and in range of temperature in water.

• They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration

and conditions of water or wastewater to be treated.

• They must be neither toxic to human and domestic animals nor

unpalatable.
 Disinfection
• They must be cheap, safe in handling and easy to store, transport,
handle and apply.

• Their strength or concentration in water can easily be determined.

• They must persists within disinfected water in a sufficient

concentration to provide reasonable residual protection against its
possible recontamination before use.

• Chlorine is one of the chemical that fulfill all the above quality. There
fore some time use of chlorine is termed as chlorination or
disinfection.
 Chlorine reaction in water
• Chlorine may be used as molecule (Cl2), sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) or Calcium Hypochlorite [Ca(OCl2)].

• When chlorine is added to water a mixture of hypochlorous acid

(HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) is formed. Like Cl2(g) + H2O <=>
HOCl + HCl

• NaOCl + H2O <=> NaOH + HOCl and

• Ca(OCl2) + H2O <=> Ca(OH)2+ 2 HOCl. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl)

is a weak acid and dissociates poorly at pH below 6. Between 6 to
8.5 pH it completely dissociate into H++ OCl-. Chlorine exists
predominantly as HOCl at pH between 4-6, below pH 1.0 HOCl is
converted into Cl2(g). Hypochlorite ion (OCl-) predominate at pH
above 7.5-9.0. HOCl and OCl- are termed as free available chlorine.
 Chlorine reaction in water
Chlorine/Ammonia Reactions: Chlorine when added to water in
molecular form, it react with both organic and inorganic materials
present in water. On reaction with ammonia or amines, it form
chloramines which is still providing disinfecting action are less likely
to react with other materials known as chloramines.

• The reaction of chlorine with ammonia is a NH3 + HOCl <=> H2 O +

NH2Cl (mono chloramine). NH2Cl + HOCl <=> H2 O + NHCl2 (di
chloramine). NHCl2 + HOCl <=> H2 O + NCl3. The Di and
Trichloramines produce unpleasant taste and odor in water at low
concentration, hence its formation is undesirable.

Chlorine also reacts with nitrogenous materials like proteins, and

amino acids to form organic chloramines complexes.
 Chlorine reaction in water
Chlorine when combined with ammonia or organic nitrogen compounds
are known as combined available chlorine. Combined available
chlorine is less effective as compared to free available chlorine. Free
available chlorine is 25 times more effective than combined
available chlorine. These reactions depends on pH, temperature,
time and initial Cl2: NH3. Generally high ration, low temperature and
low pH favor dichloramine formation.

Types of Chlorination

Depending upon the quantity of chlorine added or the stages at

which it is added the types of chlorination are as (i) Plain
chlorination (ii) Pre and Post Chlorination (iii) super chlorination (iv)
Break point chlorination and (v) dechlorination.
 Types of Chlorination

• Plain Chlorination: when only chlorine treatment is required for water

and no other treatment is carried out it is known as plain chlorination.
This treatment is used only for clean water having no impurity. It may
also be used during emergency when full treatment is not possible. The
used quantity of chlorine is about 0.5 mg/l or more.

Pre and Post Chlorination: In pre chlorination chlorine is applied

before sedimentation or filtration process to work as coagulant and kill
bacteria. The normal dose for prechlorination is 5 to 10 mg/l.

Now a days the pre chlorination treatment is banned due to formation

of Disinfectant By Products (DBP) when organic matter is present in
water like Trihalomethanes (THMs) etc.

Post chlorination is the normal process of applying chlorine at the

end of treatment process.
 Types of Chlorination

The dosage of chlorine should be such that at the end 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l
residual chlorine present in water for a contact time of at least 10 to 20
minutes. This residual will ensure the disinfection of water, if any future
recontamination occurs in the distribution system.

• Super chlorination: super chlorination is the application of excessive

amount of chlorine like 5 to 15 mg/l to water. This may be required in
some special cases like highly contaminated water or during epidemics
of water borne diseases. The chlorine added in superchlorination is to
ensure about 1 -2 mg/l of residue beyond the break point. When high
doses of chlorine are used then water must be dechlorinated at the end
of contact time. This ensures the removal of bad taste and odor due to
presence of excess chlorine. Some time it may further be contaminated
so in such case it is desirable to again chlorinate water by a dose of 0.1
to 0.2 mg/l.
• Break point Chlorination: When chlorine is slowly added to water,
it first reacts with ammonia present in water to form chloramines.
Some of the chlorine will be consumed by killing of bacteria, while
remaining show the residual form. The difference of concentration of
chlorine added to water and the residual present in water show the
consumption of chlorine. If the addition of chlorine is continued
beyond a certain point (B in Fig.) then instead of increasing the
concentration of chlorine by addition it starts falling down due to
oxidation of organic matter present in water till it reach to minimum
point C known as break point, as any chlorine that is added to water
beyond this point appeared as residual chlorine. The addition of
chlorine beyond break point is known as break point chlorination.
 At point “B” when oxidation of organic matter starts, a bad smell and taste
appears, which disappears at the break point C, when oxidation is
completed. Chlorine must be added at a rate of 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l as residual
free chlorine to protect the water from further contamination by
microorganisms in distribution system.

• Dechlorination: Dechlorination means removing of chlorine from water,

especially when super chlorination has been practiced. The common
dechlorinating agents are Sulfur dioxide gas, Activated Carbon, Sodium
thiosulfate Na2S2O3), Sodium metabisulfate Na2S2O5), Sodium Sulphite
(Na2SO3), and ammonia as NH3. The dechlorination process may either be
carried out to such an extent that sufficient residual chlorine (0.1– 0.2 mg/l)
remain in water after dechlorination or if full chlorine has been removed,
additional chlorine be added to maintain such residues. Some times just
aeration is sufficient to remove excess chlorine.
• Doses of Chlorine: The amount of chlorine required for water depends
upon the inorganic and organic impurities present in water. When chlorine
added in water it first reacts with inorganic impurities like S; Fe; Mn; NO2
which convert chlorine into chloride. Excess chlorine after this point is
consumed by ammonia to form chloramines. Similarly chlorine will also
reacts with organic matter present in water. The Chlorine consumed in all
reactions represents chlorine demand.
 Natural Process of Hardness

Rain
In natural process as rain water enters the
.
top soil, the respiration of microorganisms
Top soil Bacterial Action CO2
increases the CO2 content of the water. The
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3).The lime stone (CaCO3 and Mg CO3)
reacts with carbonic acid forming calcium
Sub soil CO2 + H2O H2CO3
carbonate [Ca(HCO3)2] and magnesium
bicarbonate [Mg(HCO3)2]. The Calcium and
Magnesium carbonate are insoluble in water ,
while bicarbonate are soluble in water causing
Lime stone CaCO3(s)+ H2CO3 Ca (HCO3)2
hardness in water. Similarly the Gypsum
MgCO3 (s) + H2CO3 Mg (HCO3)2
(CaSO4 ) and Mg SO4 may also cause
hardness of water present in subsoil layers.
Hardness
Total Hardness. Total hardness of water is the sum of Ca2+ and Mg2+along with other polyvalent
cations. Hardness is of two types (I) Temporary or carbonate hardness and (ii) Permanent or Non
carbonate hardness. Thus TH= CH + NCH. Carbonate hardness is equal to the total hardness or
total alkalinity, whichever is less. When pH is less than 8.3, HCO3- is the dominant form of
alkalinity, and the total alkalinity is normally taken as the concentration of HCO3- .
Non carbonate hardness. The total hardness is excess of the alkalinity. if the alkalinity is equal to or
greater than the total hardness, then there is no non carbonate hardness. The removal of
hardness is known as softening process. It can be presented by Bar Charts in which cations are
presented by upper chart and Calcium is first followed by Magnesium while other cations followed
without any specified order. In the lower bar bicarbonate is first following other anions without any
order.

Total Hardness

Carbonate Hardness Noncarbonate

Mg 2+ Na +
Cations Ca 2+

Anions HCO 3 - SO4 2- Cl -

Ion concentration mg/l as CaCO3

 Softening of water
• Hardness is used for water when soap does not produce lather,
causes a scum in the bath tub, and leaves hard, white deposits
(scale) on kettles as well as scaling of pipes. The removal of this
hardness known as softening of water. When soap is used in
laundry the reaction is Ca 2+ + (Soap) - -> Ca (Soap)2. As a result of
this reaction, soap can not interact with the dirt on clothing, and the
calcium soap complex itself forms undesirable precipitates. Although
hardness is not undesirable from a health point of view it make the
water less suitable for some non potable uses. The benefits of
softening to domestic users include reduction in soap use, longer life
for water heaters and other industrials units. Surface water having
hardness usually less than 200 mg/L as CaCO3, so softening is not
required. For ground water the hardness sometimes crosses the
limit of 1000 mg/L.
 Softening of water
• Therefore softening for non potable use of water is required. The
two approaches to softening of water are the lime soda process and
ion exchange process. If water is softened by addition of lime
additional benefits are include the removal of iron and manganese,
precipitation of humic and fulvic acid and reduction in suspended
solids and killing of microorganisms.

• Alkalinity: Alkalinity is a measure of the water’s capability to

neutralize acids. OR The quantity of ions in water that will reacts to
neutralize the hydrogen ions (H+). Alkalinity in water is usually due
to the presence of bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO3 2-) and
hydroxide (OH-). Thus alkalinity can be expressed as Alkalinity
(meq/L) or mg /L as CaCO3 = [(HCO3-) + (CO3 2- ) + (OH-)] – (H+).
Following is the pH and Alkalinity relation
 Lime soda Softening
When pH of water is above 11.5, the significant alkalinity is in the
form of Carbonate (CO32- ) and hydroxyl (OH-).

When pH of water is between 7.5to 8.3, the entire alkalinity is in the

form of bicarbonate (HCO3- )

When pH of water is less than 4.5, the entire alkalinity is in the form
of Carbonic acid (H2CO3 -)

• Lime soda Softening

The hardness of water can be removed by precipitation lime [Ca(OH)2]

Soda Ash [Na2CO3] and by ion exchange process. Hardness

precipitation is based on the following reactions:Ca2++CO32- =CaCO3(s)

and Mg 2++ 2OH- = Mg (OH)2(s).

 Lime soda Softening

Calcium and Magnesium as CaCO3 and Mg (OH)2 has to be

precipitated to remove hardness. For CaCO3 the pH of water has to

increase about 10.3, while for magnesium pH be 11. If sufficient

HCO3- are not present then CO32- must be added in water.

Magnesium removal is difficult as compared to calcium, so if

possible magnesium hardness will not be removed. In treatment

process the quick lime (CaO) commonly used as water reacts with

CaO giving hydrated lime [Ca(OH)2].

The reaction is CaO + H2O = Ca (OH)2 + heat.

This process is known as slaking. If carbonate ions must be

supplied then Na2CO3 known as soda ash be used.

 Softening of water
Softening reactions: The following reactions are take place in
softening process

1. Neutralization of carbonic acid (H2CO3) : To raise pH acids

must first be neutralized. Usually CO2 present in unpolluted water
naturally. Addition of slake lime or quick lime be added

CO2 + Ca (OH) 2 = CaCO3 (S) + H2O. 2:

2. Precipitation of Carbonate hardness due to calcium: The pH value has to
increase to 10.3. By this process the bicarbonate is converted to
carbonate Ca 2++ 2HCO3- + Ca (OH)2 = 2 CaCO3(S) + 2H2O.

3: Precipitation of carbonate hardness due to Magnesium: If

magnesium hardness has to removed the pH has to raised to 11. A

two stage process occurs Mg2++2HCO3- + Ca (OH)2 = MgCO3 +CaCO3(s) +

2H2O.
 Lime soda Softening

As Mg CO3 are soluble in water addition of more lime remove

magnesium like Mg2++CO3-2 + Ca (OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 (S) + CaCO3(s) .

4. Removal of noncarbonate hardness due to calcium:

Ca 2++ Na2CO3 = CaCO3(s) + 2Na+.

5. Similarly Magnesium non carbonate hardness be removed by

Mg2++ ca(OH)2 = Mg (OH)2(S) + Ca2+ and Ca2+ +Na2CO3 = CaCO3 (S)

+ 2Na+

Soda lime softening cannot produce water completely free of hardness

because of solubility of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2.due to limitation of time

and mixing process. Thus, a minimum Ca hardness that can be

achieved will be 30 mg/l as CaCO3 and magnesium hardness 10 mg/l

as CaCO3.
 Process limitations and empirical considerations

• The final hardness normally required is 75-120 mg/l as CaCO3.In order to achieve a
reasonable hardness sufficient time and minimum excess of Ca(OH)2must be added
as 20 mg/l expressed as CaCO3. Magnesium in excess of about 40 mg/l as CaCO3
forms scales on heat change elements in hot heaters. Due to expensive process of
magnesium removal usually above 40 mg/l as CaCO3 be removed. For Mg removal
less than 20 mg/l as CaCO3 the basic excess of lime is sufficient. For Mg removal
between 20 and 40 excess lime equal to Mg amount is required to be added. For
greater than 40 mg/l the excess lime needed to be added is 40 mg/l as CaCO3 to be
added. Addition of excess lime in amounts greater than 40 mg/l as CaCO3 does not
improve the reaction kinetics.
• -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
• Step Chemical addition Reason
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Carbonate hardness
Lime = CO2 Destroy H2CO3
Lime = HCO3 - Raised pH ; convert HCO3 – to CO 32-
Lime = Mg 2+ to be removed Raised pH ; precipitate Mg (OH)2
Lime = required excess Drive reaction
Non carbonate
Soda = Non carbonate hardness to be removed Provide CO32-
 Hardness
• In hardness stoichiometric relation equivalent weight play an important role as compared to molecular
or atomic weight.

• Equivalent weight = Atomic or molecular weight/ valency or ionic charge. Like the equivalent weight of
CaCO3 is = 100/2 =50 g/eq. or 50 mg/ meq. Similarly, for Ca 2+ the atomic weight is 40 while eq.wt is
40/2 =20

• Equivalent weight for selected elements, radicals and

compounds
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

• Name Symbols or formula Atomic/mole. wt. charge equivalent wt (mg/meq)

Aluminum Al 3+ 27.0 3 9.0

Calcium Ca 2+ 40.0 2 20.0

Magnesium Mg 2+ 24.3 2 12.2

Sodium Na+ 23.0 1 23.0

Bicarbonate HCO3- 61.0 1 61.0

Carbonate CO3 2- 60.0 2 30.0

Nitrate NO3 - 62 1 62.0

Chemical Analysis of a Sample of Water
• An analysis of a sample of water with pH 7.5 has produced the following concentration (mg/L)
Cations mg/L Anions mg/L
Ca 2+ 80 Cl-1 100
Mg 2+ 30 SO4 2- 201
Na+ 72 HCO3 - 165
K+ 6
Find the total Hardness (TH), the Carbonate Hardness, the non carbonate hardness and alkalinity
all expressed as CaCO3 . Find the total dissolved solids in mg/L
Solution:
Ion mg/L mg/meq mg/L as CaCO3 Ion mg/L mg/meq mg/L as CaCO3
Ca 2+ 80 20 200.0 Cl-1 100 35.5 140.8
Mg 2+ 30 12.2 123.0 SO4 2- 201 48.0 209.4
Na+ 72 23 156.5 HCO3 – 165 61.0 135.2
K+ 6 39.1 7.7
Ca 2+ = 80 mg/ L * 1/ (20.0 mg / meq) * 50.0 mg CaCO3 / meq = 200 mg/L as CaCO3 .
Total Cations = 200.0 + 123.0 + 156.5 + 7.7 = 487.2 mg/ L as CaCO3 .
Total Anions = 140.8 + 209.4 + 135.2 = 485.4 mg /L as CaCO3 .
Total Hardness = 200 + 123 = 323.0 mg/L as CaCO3 . The carbonate hardness is due to HCO3 –
which is 135.2mg/L CaCO3
Since the pH is 7.5 which is approximately neutral, the concentration of (H – )and OH –) are negligible
so alkalinity is due to just bicarbonate thus Alkalinity = ( HCO3 – ) = 135.2 mg/L as CaCO3 .
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is sum of cations and Anions thus
TDS = 80 + 30 + 72 + 6 + 100 +201 + 165 = 654 mg/l
Ion exchange softening
• Ion exchange can be defined as the reversible interchange of ions between a solid and a liquid
phase in which there is no permanent change in the structure of the solid. Ion of a given species
are displaced from an insoluble solid substance (exchange medium) by ions of another species
dissolved in water. Water is passed through the exchange medium until the exchange capacity is
exhausted and then it is regenerated. This process can be used to remove color, hardness, iron
and manganese, nitrate chromium and other inorganic, heavy metals and organics. Exchange
media which exchange cations are known as cationic or acid exchanger, while materials which
exchange anions are anionic or base exchangers. Common cation exchangers are Zeolites, a
natural type of sand also known as green sand. The formula of zeolites is
Na2OAl2O3x.SiO2y.H2O.It can also be synthetic like polystyrene resins. For ion exchange usually
resins are used. Both have the excellent property of exchanging their cations, and hence during
softening operation, the sodium ions of the zeolite replaced by the magnesium and calcium ions
present in hard water. The chemical reactions occurs as
Ca (HCO 3) 2 Ca 2NaHCO3
Na2 R + SO4 R+ Na2SO4
Mg Cl2 Mg 2 NaCl
Where R is the exchange resins or zeolite. When hard water containing Ca and Mg is passed
through an ion exchanger, these metals are taken up by the resin, which is simultaneously gives
up sodium in exchange. Sodium is dissolved in water. After a period of operation the exchanging
capacity would be exhausted. The calcium and magnesium zeolite or resin can be regenerated
into active sodium zeolite by treating with 10% solution of sodium chloride.
. The exchange reactions that take place during
regeneration can be represented as
Ca
Mg R + 2 NaCl Na2R + CaCl2 or MgCl2

zeolite or Resin softener is like a sand filter in

which the filtering medium is a zeolite or resin.
The hard water enters through the top, and is
evenly distributed on the entire zeolite or resin
bed. When a significant portion of the sodium
is replaced by Ca and Mg. it is regenerated
first washing it with water by reversing the flow
and then treating it with 10% solution of brine.
The excess brine retained after treatment is
removed by washing with water. It remove
100% hardness from water. The Complete
removal of minerals is carried out by first
passing water through a bed of cations resins
and then by a bed of anions.
• Adsorption: Adsorption is a mass transfer process wherein a substance transferred from the
liquid phase to the surface of a solid where it is bound by chemical or physical faces.

• Generally in water treatment the adsorbent is Activated Carbon, either in powered form (PAC) or
granular (GAC). PAC is fed to the raw water in a slurry and is generally used to remove taste
and odor causing substances or to provide some removal of synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs).
The PAC dose is generally in the range of 25-50 mg/L but might be as high as 100 mg/L for some
application. Powered activated carbon water is then removed from water and is then discarded. .
The grain size of PAC is 5 to 100 micro meter Use of PAC has the advantage of less expensive
than GAC. GAC is typically used in a fixed bed, like a granular sand filter. GAC is some time used
as a dual media in sand filtration. The useful life of GAC bed might range from few months to
several years. Spent GAC can be regenerated by means of heating or it may be discarded. The
performance of activated carbon for removing contaminants from water depends on both
equilibrium and kinetics characteristics of the system. GAC have several advantages over PAC.
Less effluent contaminants concentration can be achieved with GAC because the contaminants is
reduced to lower concentration in mass transfer zone.

• AERATION: The purpose of aeration is to saturate water with oxygen and to remove gases that
may be objectionable ( like hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon dioxide). Or that may interfere with other
treatment stages. The goal in the design of an aerator is to provide a large interfacial contact area
between the air and water phase. A common aeration techniques in water treatment consists of
spraying the water into the air and allowing it to fall on surface.