1.

Discovery of photorefractive effect

2. Definitions
3. Detailed principles and steps of working
4. Applications
5. References
 The photorefractive effect was first discovered in 1966 by
Ashkin when he studied the transmission of laser beams
through electro optic crystals like LiNb𝑂3 and LiTa𝑂3 .
 This effect was initially called as “optical damage”.
 A satisfactory theoretical explanation to this effect was first
given by Kukhtarev by making use of the concept of
impurities and trap states of the charge carriers
photogenerated.
“ It can be simply defined as the light induced periodic refractive index
modification in the material ”.

Points to note:
1. Even if it is a non linear effect, this effect is independent on light
intensity( ie, can be observed even at low intensities ).
2. Hence we cannot use the normal methods we use to define non linear
processes to explain this. We need other methods !!!
 1. Photoionization of carriers
Photorefraction
2. E-O effect ( Pockels effect )

Initially, the incident light perturbation excites the charge carriers.

Due to this a charge diffusion happens within the material.
The new charge distribution is such that it creates an inside electric
field.
This field, with the help of E-O effect changes the RI of the
medium.
 Steps in detail……….

• 1. Two monochromatic coherent beams are crossed on the material to

illuminate it by the interference pattern formed. This interference is a
spatially varying intensity.

I(x) = 𝑰𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒌𝒙
2. PHOTO EXCITATION
In dark condition
• How the photo excitation works is given by Band Transport Model
proposed by Kukhtarev

Assumptions
There are 𝑁𝐷 donor atoms and 𝑁𝐴 acceptor atoms in a photorefractive
crystal such that 𝑁𝐷 ≫ 𝑁𝐴 .
In dark condition, some donor atoms are ionized due to thermal energy
and these electrons are taken up by acceptors. So now 𝑁𝐷+ is the number
of ionized donors and 𝑁𝐷0 is the number of neutral donors available for
excitation such that 𝑵𝑫 = 𝑵+ 𝑫 + 𝑵 𝟎
𝑫.
So under dark condition, 𝑁𝐷+ = 𝑁𝐴 and hence there is a total charge
neutrality in the crystal.
3 As you may see, there will be different regions inside the crystal which
are not neutral ie having excess charge deposition. We can represent the
charge density of these carriers as ρ(x) – Space charge density
Hence the ρ(x)
is represented as,
4. Now due to this space charge distribution, there is a space charge
electric field generated.

As you can see, E(x) is 90◦ out of phase with ρ(x)

• According to maxwells eq,

𝝆
𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜺𝟎

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
Since E is only varying through 𝑥, and = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑍

𝑑𝐸 ρ 1
= , 𝐸(𝑥) = ‫ ׬‬ρ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝜀0 𝜀0

So as ρ 𝑥 is a cosine function, 𝐸(𝑥) will be a sin function.

Hence a phase shift of 90◦
5. This varying electric field 𝑬(𝒙) modifies the RI of the medium using
linear electro-optic pockels effect.
Change in RI due to pockels effect is given by the eq,

(2)
Where 𝒓𝑖𝑗 are the elements of pockels tensor and is related to 𝝌𝑖𝑗
1 3
∆n(𝒙) = −
2
𝑛0 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐸 (𝒙)

If we substitute the equation of space charge field, we get a spatially varying

RI ∆n(x).
 This RI variation is not permanent. It can be reversed to
normal state if we shine a light of uniform intensity. Due
to this, all parts of the crystal will be uniformly excited and
all parts becomes electrically neutral. This disturbs the
ρ(x), and hence disturbs 𝐸(𝑥) and hence there will not be
any RI change.
 Hence the whole material turns back to normal
 Since the RI change is initiated by linear electro optic
pockel effect which depends on χ(2) of the medium,
the materials should be non centro-symmetric in
order to show photorefraction. ie the material should
not have Centre of symmetry.
 Egs: LiNb𝑂3 , LiTa𝑂3 , KDP, BBO etc………
 Dynamic holography ( erasable holograms )
 Two beam coupling
 Phase conjugate mirrors
 Nanocomposites for semiconductor quantum dot applications
 Optical noise purification

And more…………
 In ordinary or static holography, the recording and reconstruction
processes are done one after the other.
 Also, the holograms are recorded on a photographic plate and hence, the
recording is permanent.
 But if you use photorefractive material as recording medium, the
recording, reconstruction and image formation are all at one time ie, a
real time holography.
 Also, the recording is not permanent. It can be easily erased if we shine a
uniformly intense light.
Real time holography
 The 2 beams interacting in a photorefractive medium can exchange energy, i.e an
energy coupling takes place between them
 Hence one beam gets amplified at the at the expense of the other.
 Hence photorefraction can be used to amplify a weak beam.

(Low intensity) 𝐴𝑝 (attenuated)

(High intensity) 𝐴𝑠 (amplified)

 Non linear optics - Robert W Boyd
 Quantum electronics - Amnon Yariv
 Handbook of non linear optics - Richard L Southerland
 Nanophotonics - Paras N Prasad
 Wikipedia
 Optical electronics in modern communications - Amnon Yariv
 Photonics - Linear and non linear interactions of laser light and
matter - Ralf Menzel