Chapter 8

Fuels and combustion process

 Introduction to Fuels

 The various types of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are
available for firing in boilers, furnaces and other combustion
equipment.
 The selection of right type of fuel depends on various factors such as
availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost of fuel.
 Most liquid and gaseous fuels are made from Crude oil, which is
made up almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen with some traces of
other species.
 It varies from 83% to 87% carbon and 11% to 14% hydrogen by
weight. The carbon and hydrogen can combine in many ways and
form many different molecular compounds.
 The crude oil mixture which is taken from the ground is separated into
component products by cracking and/or distillation using thermal or
catalytic methods at an oil refinery.
 Cracking is the process of breaking large molecular components into
more useful components of smaller molecular weight.
 Preferential distillation is used to separate the mixtures into single
components or smaller ranges of components.
 Generally, the larger the molecular weight of a component, the higher
is its boiling temperature.
 Low boiling temperature components (smaller molecular weights) are
used for solvents and fuels (gasoline)
 High boiling temperature components with their large molecular
weights are used for tar and asphalt or returned to the refining process
for further cracking.
 The component mixture of the refining process is used for many
products, including: automobile gasoline, diesel fuel, aircraft gasoline,
jet fuel, home heating fuel, industrial heating fuel, natural gas,
lubrication oil, asphalt, alcohol, rubber, paint, plastics and explosives.
Liquid fuels
 Fuels in liquid form are called liquid fuels. Liquid fuels are generally
obtained from petroleum and its by-products.
 These liquid fuels are complex mixture of different hydrocarbons, and
obtained by refining the crude petroleum oil.
 Commonly used liquid fuels are petrol, kerosene diesel, aviation fuel,
light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil etc.
The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for
the right purpose and efficient use of the fuel. The following
characteristics, determined by laboratory tests, are generally used for
assessing the nature and quality of fuels.
Density
This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the
fuel at a reference temperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an
instrument called hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for
quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is
kg/m3.
Specific gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the
weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The density
of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity of
water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio, it has no units. The
measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.
 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.
Viscosity depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature
increases.
Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use of
fuel oil. It influences the degree of pre-heat required for handling,
storage and satisfactory atomization.
Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can
be heated so that the vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open
flame is passed over it. Flash point for furnace oil is 66oC.
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or
flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough
indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable
Specific Heat
It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specific gravity. Light
oils have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a higher specific
 Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is
measured either as gross calorific value or net calorific value. Gross
calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapor produced during the combustion
process is fully condensed. Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water
leaves with the combustion products without fully being condensed.
Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.
Sulphur
The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of
the crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining process. The normal
sulfur content for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4
%.
Ash Content
The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash
levels of distillate fuels are negligible. Typically, the ash value is in the
range 0.03-0.07 %. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can cause fouling
deposits in the combustion equipment.
Carbon Residue
Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous
solid residue on a hot surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when
its vaporizable constituents evaporate. Residual oil contains carbon
residue ranging from 1 percent or more.
Water Content
Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage
to the inside furnace surfaces during combustion especially if it contains
dissolved salts.
Composition of liquid fuels
Liquid fuels offer following advantages over solid fuel.
 Better mixing of fuel and air is possible with liquid fuel.
 Liquid fuels have no problem of ash formation.
 Storage and handling of liquid fuels is easy compared to solid fuels.
 Processing such as refining of liquid fuels is more convenient.
Gaseous Fuels
 These are the fuels in gaseous phase. Gaseous fuels are also generally
hydrocarbon fuels derived from petroleum reserves available in
nature. Most common gaseous fuel is natural gas. Gaseous fuels may
also be produced artificially from burning solid fuel (coal) and water.
 Some of gaseous fuels produced artificially are coal gas, producer gas
etc. Volumetric analysis of gaseous fuels is presented in Table below
Gaseous fuels offer all advantages as there in liquid fuels except ease
of storage.
Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG),
Natural gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc.
Physical and chemical properties of some common gaseous fuels

Compositions of some common gaseous fuels

LPG ( Liquefied petroleum gas)
LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and Butane with a small
percentage of un saturates (Propylene and Butylene) and some lighter C2
as well as heavier C5 fractions. Included in the LPG range are propane
(C3H8), Propylene(C3H6), normal and iso-butane (C4H10) and
Butylene(C4H8).

Natural Gas
Methane is the main constituent of Natural gas and accounting for about
95% of the total volume. Other components are: Ethane, Propane,
Butane, Pentane, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and traces of other gases.
Very small amounts of sulphur compounds are also present. Since
methane is the largest component of natural gas, generally properties of
methane are used when comparing the properties of natural gas to other
fuels.
 Solid fuel: Coal is the most common solid fuel. Coal is a dark
brown/black sedimentary rock derived primarily from the un oxidizable
remains of carbon-bearing plant tissues. It can be
further classified into different types based upon the composition.
Composition can be estimated using either “proximate analysis” or
by “ultimate analysis”. Proximate analysis is the one in which the
individual constituent element such as C, H2, S, N2 etc. are not
determined rather only fraction of moisture, volatile matter, ash,
carbon etc. are determined.
Combustion process
 Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the
production of heat, or heat and light..
 Combustion is also defined as the burning of a fuel and oxidant to
produce heat and/or work
 It starts with the mixing of fuel and oxidant, and sometimes in the
presence of catalysts
 The fuel can be gaseous, liquid, or solid and the mixture may be
ignited with a heat source
 Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they burn.
Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases.
 Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an
adequate supply of oxygen
 Most combustion reactions are exothermic, Exothermic reactions are
those involving heat evolution
 When ignited, chemical reactions of fuel and oxidant take place and
the heat release from the reaction creates a self-sustained process
 The combustion products include heat, light, chemicals, pollutants

Chemical reaction
 In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an
oxidizing element, such as oxygen and the products are compounds of
each element in the fuel with the oxidizing element
For example methane combustion
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + energy
Complete combustion of carbon: Incomplete combustion of carbon
C + O2 = C O2 + heat 2C + O2 = 2 CO + heat
Combustion of hydrogen: 2H2 + O2 = 2 H2O + heat
Stoichiometric Combustion
 The efficiency of a boiler or furnace depends on efficiency of the
combustion system.
 The amount of air required for complete combustion of the fuel
depends on the elemental constituents of the fuel that is Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Sulphur etc. This amount of air is called stoichiometric
air. For ideal combustion process for burning one kg of a typical fuel
oil containing 86% Carbon, 12% Hydrogen, 2% Sulphur, theoretically
required quantity of air is 14.1 kg.
 This is the minimum air that would be required if mixing of fuel and
air by the burner and combustion is perfect. The combustion products
are primarily Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O) and Sulphur
Dioxide (SO2), which pass through the chimney along with the
Nitrogen (N2) in the air,.
TYPES OF COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURES

BURNING OF STOICHIOMETRIC METHANE MIXTURE IN AIR

Attention: there is not fuel neither

oxygen in flue gas.
BURNING OF STOICHIOMETRIC METHANE MIXTURE IN
AIR: flue gas composition
BURNING OF LEAN METHANE MIXTURE IN AIR
Attention: there is oxygen
in flue gas.

Burning of lean methane mixture in air: flue gas composition

STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
The theoretical air required to complete combustion of fuel results from
the equation of stoichiometry of oxygen/fuel reaction. Stoichiometric air
means the minimum air in stoichiometric mixture. The stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio (AFR) can be calculated from the reaction equation (g/g).
For gas AFR is usually determined in m3/m3.
The actual combustion air depends also on the assumed air excess
(equivalence ratio or stoichiometric ratio).
THE STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO (l)

AN EQUIVALENCE RATIO f

AIR/FUEL RATIO (AFR) and FUEL/AIR RATIO (FAR)

Form the practical reasons in aviation (aircrafts) mostly in use is the ratio
of air mass-flow to the fuel mass-flow determined as AFR (Air/Fuel
Ratio)
STOICHIOMETRIC RATIO/EQUIVALENCE RATIO AND TYPE OF
MIXTURE
CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL
 During combustion, the chemical energy of fuel gets transformed into
molecular kinetic or molecular potential energy of products. This
energy associated with combustion also called calorific value of fuel is
very important to be known for thermodynamic design and
calculations of combustion systems.
 “Bomb calorimeter” is one of the ways to get the heating value of
solid and liquid fuels when burnt at constant volume.
 Enthalpy of combustion: Enthalpy of combustion of fuel is defined as
the difference between the enthalpy of the products and enthalpy of
reactants when complete combustion occurs at given temperature and
pressure.
 It may be given as higher heating value or lower heating value.
 Higher heating value (HHV) of fuel is the enthalpy of combustion
when all the water (H2O) formed during combustion is in liquid
phase.
 Lower heating value (LHV) of fuel refers to the enthalpy of
combustion when all the water (H2O) formed during combustion is in
vapor form.
 The lower heating value will be less than higher heating value by the
amount of heat required for evaporation of water.
HHV = LHV + (Heat required for evaporation of water)
 It is also called calorific value of fuel and is defined as the number of
heat units liberated when unit mass of fuel is burnt completely in a
calorimeter under given conditions.
 Enthalpy of formation: Enthalpy of formation of a compound is the
energy released or absorbed when compound is formed from its
elements at standard reference state.
 Thus enthalpy of formation shall equal heat transfer in a reaction
during which compound is formed from its’ elements at standard
reference state.
 Enthalpy of formation will have positive (+ ve) value if formation is
by an endothermic reaction and negative (– ve) value if formation is
by an exothermic reaction.
 Calorific value is the heating value from the complete combustion of
unit mass of fuel
Units are KJ/kg (SI units) K cal/kg ( BTU ) 1 K cal/kg = 4.187 KJ/kg
 The instrument used to measure calorific value is known as a bomb
calorimeter. It measures gross value or higher calorific value(i.e. it
includes latent heat of water vapor formed by combustion of
Hydrogen).
 To calculate net or lower calorific value, latent heat has to be
Heat evolved during oxidation of some of the fuel constituents are as under,

The higher calorific value of fuel can thus be given as under using the mass
fractions of constituent elements known. If percentage mass fractions of fuel
constituents are given by C, H, O and S then.

Lower calorific value of fuel can be given by,

L.C.V. of fuel = (H.C.V. of fuel) – (Heat carried by water vapor formed per kg
of fuel burnt).
During combustion of fuel the water shall be formed due to hydrogen present
in fuel, therefore mass of water vapor can be given by the mass fraction of
hydrogen. Thus,
Combustion process in a diesel engine