Species Interaction 2: Predation

1. Introduction
2. Mathematical Model of Predation
3. Laboratory Studies of Predation
4. Field Studies of Predation
5. How do Prey Persist?
6. Evolution of Predator- Prey Systems
7. Warning Coloration

Predation 1
 1. Introduction

 Predator-prey interactions can be analyzed with simple

models for one predator –one prey. That leads to predator-
prey cycles.
 In laboratory rarely leads to stable interactions between
predator-prey, but show the importance of prey refuges and
spatial heterogenity
 Predation can be broken down into components of numerical,
functional, development and aggregative responses of
predator – prey, to describe predation process.
 Multiple predator- multiple prey systems lead to more
complex dynamics and show importance of predation to the
evolution of escape behavior and warning coloration.
Predation 2
1. Introduction

 Predation occurs when members of one species eat those of

another species. Often but not always by killing of the prey.
 Human is a one of major predator, we prey on fishes,
grouse, geese, and deer.
 Five specific types of predation:
 Herbivore : animals that prey on plant, seed and fruits
 Carnivores: animals prey on herbivores
 Carnivores: animals prey on other carnivore.
 Parasitoids: predator that lay eggs on or near the insect host
 Parasites: plant or animals that live on or in their host.

Predation 3
1. Introduction

 Predation is an important process from three points of

view:
 Predation may restrict distribution or reduce
abundance of the prey population.
 Predation is a major type of interaction that
influence the organization of community
 Predation is a major selective force and many
adaptation such as warning coloration and predator-
prey co evolution

Predation 4
 1. Introduction
 Predators do not interact only with their prey species, but also with another
species via competition .
 Competition between predators may be:
 Direct effect: when both predator species eat the same prey species that is in short
supply.(Figure a)
 Indirect effect : via prey species that themselves compete for space or food (Figure b) .

Predation 5
 2. Matematical Model of Predation
1. Model predator-prey interaction with discrete generation.
 Inseasonal environments, many insect parasitoid (predator)
and their insect hosts (prey) have one generation per year
can be described:
 Assume, predator is absence, the small prey population
will increase and this increasing as a logistic equation :

Predation 6
2. Matematical Model of Predation

 In the presence of predator:

 Accounting number individuals eaten by predators, all the
prey might be killed by predator, and each predator might
eat a constant number of prey
 The abundance of the prey is determined by the
abundance of predator.
 Predator must eat more prey when prey are abundant,
less prey when prey are scarce.
 These calculation can be carried out over many
generations, the results shown:

Predation 7
2. Matematical Model of Predation

Predation 8
2. Matematical Model of Predation

2. Model predator-prey interaction with continuous

generation
Many predators and prey have overlapping generation,
with birth and death occurring continuously such as
vertebrate predators.
The best model were developed by Rezensweig andMac
Arthur (1963) :

Predation 9
 2. Matematical Model of Predation
 This hypothetical experiment
construct a series of
populations at different
predator and prey densities:
 Point A. there are many
predators-and prey will
decline.
 Point B. there are a few
predator, the prey will
increase.
 Points C. There are many
predators and prey, than
excessive predator will drive
prey numbers down.
 The prey isocline occurs at
the rate of increase of the
Predation 10

prey population is zero.

 2. Matematical Model of Predation
 Figure A: Vertical isocline assumed by Lotka and Volterra. The single prey
density above which predator population can grow. Or population of predator
decrease.
 Figure B: more realistic predator-prey isocline. Bends to the right because as
predator increase, they compete with one another for breeding, sites and other
resources.

Predation 11
2. Matematical Model of Predation
 By examining the vectors around the equilibrium point, we can
see:
 In the lower right quadrant (C): the prey is decreasing but the
predator is increasing. The prey is decreasing but the predator is
increasing, so the vector points is upward.
 In the lower left quadrant (B): the prey is increasing but the
predator is decreasing.
 In upper left quadrant : both predator and prey are decreasing
 Figure a: When the predator isocline is vertical and remains
linear, this system is stable, if disturbed from equilibrium it will
back to stable condition.
 Figure b: When predator more efficient, so predator can subsist
on lower number of prey. Then the predator isocline intersects
the prey isocline. There is no point equilibrium for this system
Predation 12
2. Matematical Model of Predation

Predation 13
 3.Laboratory Studies of Predation
 Laboratory system can be set up in which the major assumption of
predator-prey models can be met. The laboratory systems are more
simple, and the natural world is more complex
 Gause (1934) made an empirical test of predator-prey models.
 Paramecium caudatum (prey) and Didinium nasutum (predator)
together in an oat medium. Didinium always exterminated paramecium
and then died of starvation. (go to extinct). (Figure a)
 Then, he used very large culture and introduced a few didinium. This
system did not stable because didinium very rapidly multiplied even
when prey were scarce (Figure b)
 Gause produced more complex system by adding sediment for prey
refuging. In sediment, paramecium were safe from didinium.
Paramecium hiding in sediment and emerged to increase the numbers
This experiment ended with number of prey and no predator. (Figure c)
Predation 14
Predation 15
 3.Laboratory Studies of Predation
 Hulfaker (1958) worked on the biological control of insect
pest.
 He used a phytopagous mite: Eotretramychus
sexmaculatus as prey that infest oranges and
Typhlodromus occidentatias as predator.
 When predator introduced onto a single prey infested
orange, it completely eliminated the prey and died of
starvation.
 Hulfaker introduced more heterogeneity condition by
placing 40 oranges and partly covered some oranges with
paraffin or paper to limit the feeding areas.
 The figure illustrated a population became extinct in a
moderately complex
Predation 16
3.Laboratory Studies of Predation

Predation 17
 3.Laboratory Studies of Predation
 The experiment of predator-prey interaction applied on 252 orange
in which one-twentieth of each orange was exposed for possible
feeding by the prey.
 Four aspects of predator-prey dynamics that should be considered:
multiple prey species being eaten by multiple predator species,
refuge for the prey, spatial heterogeneity in habitat suitable for both,
evolutionary changes in predator-prey characters.

Predation 18
 4. Field Studies of Predation
 How can we find out whether predator have a strong effect on the
abundance of their prey? By removed predator, direct experiment
with adequate controls or use natural experiment.
 Population of woodland caribou in North America have been
declining for the past 50 years, particularly in southern part
closed to Canada due to : Habitat loss leading to food limitation or
Increasing predator : wolves and bears .
 Pukaskwa National Park is undisturbed boreal forest.
 Three predator species (lynx, wolf and bear) feed on caribou
 There is no predator on the slate island, that correlated to the 100
fold difference in average caribou density.

Predation 19
4. Field Studies of Predation

Predation 20
 4. Field Studies of Predation

 Woodland caribou show puzzling population responses with the

changes in density
 Generally, when population density falls, the rate population growth
increase, but it is not work on caribou population.
 The mechanism responsible for allee effect in caribou appears to
excessive of predation from wolves. Wolf populations are primarily
limited by their primary prey, moose and they treat caribou as
secondary prey.
 Population of woodland caribou suffer from competition with
moose. Predator losses do not always lead to reduced prey
population

 .
 Predation 21
4. Field Studies of Predation

Predation 22
 4. Field Studies of Predation
 How do predator effective control their prey population?.
 Solomon (1949) recognized two components of predation:
 Functional responses defined as the response of an average
predator to the abundance of the prey . Whether an individual
predator eats more prey individuals when prey are abundant.
 Numerical responses defined as the response of a predator
population to a change in prey density. Whether the density of
predator will change as prey number increase.
 The functional response measures for each individual predator how
many prey it eats in a given time period.
 The functional response of many predators rises to a plateau as prey
density increases, (predator eats more prey), but at some high prey
density the predator becomes satiated and will nor eat more.
Predation 23
 4. Field Studies of Predation

 Three possible functional

responses:
 Type 1: predator with a
contant consumption of prey
and no satiation
 Type 2 : predator eats more
prey, when prey increase
and reach saturation
 Type 3 : predator no eats
more on prey eventhough
prey number abundant.
Predation 24
4. Field Studies of Predation

 A numerical response of
predators can occur because
of reproduction of predation
and a aggregative response
results from movement or
concentration of predation in
high prey density areas
 The numerical response of
Canada lynx to the changes in
snowshoes hare density from
1987 to 1995
 Lynx respond to rising hare
numbers by increasing in
density

Predation 25
 5. How do Prey Persist?
How predator-prey continue to persist? The general assumption that
there is a dynamic equilibrium in predator-prey interactions that
results in the continuing existence of both.
The two mechanism to reach equilibrium :
1. Prey species has a refuge (spatial or temporal) in which it is safe
from predators. For example:
Spatial: Habitat or
temporal: Diurnal or seasonal periods in which predator can not
effectively find their prey
2. Predator may switch their hunting to other species as a original prey
falls to low abundant. (Behavior of predator inn choosing prey part of
optimal foraging theory).

Predation 26
5. How do Prey Persist?

 In natural foraging condition predators prefer some prey over

others as primary prey species and secondary prey.

 Predator can be classified into:

 Generalist predator : eat a great variety of prey and do not
heavily depend on one species. They tend to stabilize prey number
 Specialist predator: by contrast, depend on only one or two prey
species. They tend to cause instability in prey number


Predation 27
 6. Evolution of Predator- Prey Systems

 Natural selection has changed the characteristic of predator-prey.

 Evolutionary change in two or more interacting species is co-
evolution.
 If one predator is better than another at catching prey. The fisrt
individual will leave more descendant to subsequent predator
generations. Thus, predator continually selected and become more
efficient in catching prey. But, the predator too efficient, and then
suffer starvation
 At the same time, the prey are being selected to be better escaping
predation.
 Because of the conflicting adaptive goals, predator-prey evolution
as an arms race

Predation 28
6. Evolution of Predator- Prey Systems

Predation 29
 7.Warning Coloration
 Many animals have conspicous coloration that advertises their
presence. It would be a risky strategy , making them highly visible
to prospective predators.
 But, the animals either contain chemical toxins or possesses
physical defenses that deter predators by warning coloration.
 For example, many butterflies and other insects that are brightly
colored contain poisons. (Theory of warning or aposematic).
 Mechanism of prey defense using warning coloration must evolve by
increasing the chance of survival.
 The predators first, must sample one individual before they learn to
avoid other prey with the same color.

Predation 30
7.Warning Coloration

http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/monar
ch/LarvaFacts.html

Predation 31
 7.Warning Coloration

 All of 120 species of coral

snakes in tropical America are
extremely poisonous. They are
brightly colored with red,
yellow and back bands.
 Many unpoisonous snakes have
evolved color pattern to mimic
the appearance of coral
snakes. These nonpoisonous
are called Batesian mimicry.
 One of five species is poisonous
snake, the four are mimicry
the pattern
Predation 32