Princess Sumaya Univ.

Electronic Engineering Dept.

3441
Industrial Instruments 1
Chapter 5
Mechanical Sensors
Dr. Bassam Kahhaleh
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Mechanical Sensors

Objective
Understand how mechanical sensors work
and how to interface them.
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Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location, or Position Sensors
Potentiometric

VS
RD

R1
R3
VR − V out
+
R2

R3 loading effect!!
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Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location, or Position Sensors
Capacitive
A
C  K 0
d

K = the dielectric constant

ε0 = permittivity = 8.85 pF/m
A = plate common area
D = plate separation
rh
C  2K 0
d
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Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location, or Position Sensors
Inductive

Permeable
core
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Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location, or Position Sensors
Variable Reluctance
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
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Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location, or Position Sensors
LVDT
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Mechanical Sensors
Displacement, Location, or Position Sensors
Level Sensors
 Mechanical
 Electrical
 Ultrasonic
 Pressure
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Stress: Forces applied to an object
Strain: the result (deformation) of stress
A
 Tensile Stress-Strain F F
 Compressional Stress-Strain l
A
F F = applied force in N F F
Stress 
A A = cross-sectional area in m2 l

l Δl = change in length in m
Strain 
l l = original length in m
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
 Shear Stress-Strain F

F l
Stress  A
A F

x
Shear strain  Δx
l
F

l
F
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Stress-Strain Curve
Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus):
Stress Strain
E
Strain Breaks
Necking

Linear
region

Stress
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Strain Gauge (SG)
Resistance in metals: 0
R0  
A0

Constant volume:
V   0 A0  ( 0  )( A0  A)  0  
R
A0  A


R  2 R0
0
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Strain Gauge - Temperature effect
Example:

R0 = 120 Ω R  2 R0
0
Strain = 1000 μm / m
0 = 0.004 / °C R(T )  R(T0 ) [1   0 T ]
 Strain ΔR = 0.24 Ω
 Temp. ΔR = 0.48 Ω / °C
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Metal Strain Gauges (SGs)
Gauge Factor: R / R
GF 
Strain

Typically, GF ~ 2
Special alloys and carbon: GF = 10
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Construction
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Signal Conditioning R1 R2

 R 
R A  R 1   VS a D b
 R 
RD RA
R
VS R VS R
V   
4 1 R 4 R
R

VS 
V   GF
4 
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Two-arm Bridge

D1 D2

VS a D b

A1 A2

VS 
V   GF
2 
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Semiconductor Strain Gauges (SGs)
Typically, GF: −50 ~ −200
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Mechanical Sensors
Strain Sensors
Load Cells
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Mechanical Sensors
Motion Sensors
Types of Motion
 Rectilinear
 Angular
 Vibration
 Shock
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Mechanical Sensors
Motion Sensors
Accelerometer
Spring-Mass System ma  kx k = spring constant
in N/m
There is a natural frequency at k
which the system oscillates a  x
without acceleration. m
Use it with frequency < 1 / (2.5 fN)
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Mechanical Sensors
Motion Sensors
Types of Accelerometers
 Potentiometric
 LVDT
 Variable Reluctance
(small magnet / inductor)
 Piezoelectric
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Mechanical Sensors
Motion Sensors
Steady-State Acceleration C
R2
Example V in R
− R1
sensor: 14 mV / g − V out
+
+
Design: Vout = 0.25 V / (m/s)

 mV  1g  mV
14    1.43
 g  9.8 m / s 2  m / s2

R = 1 MΩ, C = 1 μF
 VIntegral = −1.43 mV / (m/s)
 GainInverter = −175
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Mechanical Sensors
Pressure Sensors
p > 1 atmosphere
 Diaphragm
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Mechanical Sensors
Pressure Sensors
p > 1 atmosphere
 Bourdon Tube
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Mechanical Sensors
Pressure Sensors
p > 1 atmosphere
 Solid-State Pressure Sensors
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Mechanical Sensors
Pressure Sensors
p > 1 atmosphere
 Solid-State Pressure Sensors
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Mechanical Sensors
Pressure Sensors
p < 1 atmosphere
In low-pressure environment, the heat loss is proportional
to the number of gas molecules per unit volume.
 Pirani Gauge
Measure filament resistance (RTD)
 Thermocouple
 Ionization Gauge
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Mechanical Sensors
Flow Sensors
Solid-Flow Measurement
WR
Q
L
Where:
Q = flow (kg /min)
W = weight of material on
section of length L
R = conveyor speed
(m/min)
L = length of weighing
platform (m)
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Mechanical Sensors
Flow Sensors
Liquid-Flow
Restriction Type

Q  K p
Where:
Q = Volume flow rate
K = constant (for the pipe
& liquid type)
Δp = drop in pressure
across the restriction
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Mechanical Sensors
Flow Sensors
Liquid-Flow
Obstruction Type
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Mechanical Sensors
Flow Sensors
Liquid-Flow
Magnetic Type

Conducting
liquids
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Mechanical Sensors

End of Chapter 5