FRAMES OF REFERENCE

Inertial Frame of Reference

A frame of reference where Newton’s Laws of Motion
hold true.

A frame of reference that is at rest or moving with

constant velocity is an inertial frame of reference.

Non-inertial Frame of Reference

A frame of reference where Newton’s Laws of Motion
seem to be violated.
A frame of reference that is accelerating is a non- inertial
frame of reference.
 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY (STR)
1st POSTULATE: The Principle of
Relativity
The laws of physics are the
same in all inertial frames of
reference.

2nd POSTULATE: The Constancy

of the Speed of Light

The speed of light in vacuum

is the same in all frames of reference
and is independent of the motion of
the source,
 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STR
1. Events that are simultaneous for one observer may not be
simultaneous for another observer.

2. When observers moving relative to each other measure time,

they may not get the same result.

3. When observers moving relative to each other measure

length, they may not get the same result.

4. Newton’s 2nd Law, and equations for conservation of

momentum and energy may have to be revised.
1st POSTULATE: The Principle of Relativity
The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference.

(a) Current is produced in the

(b) Current is produced in the
stationary coil by a moving
coil by moving it through a
nearby magnet.
stationary magnet.
2nd POSTULATE: The Constancy of the Speed of Light

The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all frames

of reference and is independent of the motion of the source.
2nd POSTULATE: The Constancy of the Speed of Light

The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all frames

of reference and is independent of the motion of the source.
2nd POSTULATE: The Constancy of the Speed of Light
It is impossible for an inertial observer to travel at the
speed of light in vacuum.

vS ' / S  c

• Assume that the spaceship is travelling at c and then emits a light beam.
• According to Newton/Galileo: The observer on earth (S) would observe
that the spaceship and the light move together (and are always at the same
point in space).
• According to Einstein: The observer on the spaceship (S’) would observe
that the light beam travels with a speed c relative to him (they cannot be at
the same point in space).
The Galilean Coordinate Transformation
Consider two inertial frames S and S’ with S’ moving with
constant velocity u (in the +x direction) relative to S and that their
origins O and O’ coincide at t = t’ = 0.
S and S’ are separated at a later time by a distance equal to
ut .

Consider a particle P
launched in S’.
The Galilean Coordinate Transformation
The position of the particle relative to S’ is x’ and its position
relative to S is x, so that
x = x’ + ut
The velocity of the particle relative to S’ is vx’ and its velocity
relative to S is vx, so that
vx = vx’ + u
dx
vx =
dt

dx’
vx’=
dt
The Galilean Coordinate Transformation

Suppose the particle is the light beam launched from S’.

The velocity of the light beam relative to S’ is c’ and its

velocity relative to S is c, so that

c = c’ + u

This is impossible according to Einstein’s 2nd Postulate.

What’s wrong?
The Galilean relativity (incorrectly) assumes that both
frames of reference use the same time scale, and that the velocities
are defined as

dx dx’
vx = vx’=
dt dt
Relativity of Simultaneity
According to Einstein, the correct definition of velocities
should be
dx dx’
vx = vx’=
dt dt’
The reference frame S’ uses a different time scale.

Definition of Simultaneous Events

• In any given frame of reference, an event is an occurrence that

has a definite position and time.
• In any given frame of reference, two events are said to be
simultaneous if they occur at the same time.

Two events that are simultaneous in a given frame of

reference are NOT simultaneous in another frame moving relative to
the first even if both frames are inertial frames.
Relativity of Time Intervals

Consider an observer (Mavis) on a reference frame S’ moving

with a velocity u (where u < c) relative to another reference frame S.

She measures the time interval

to between 2 events.

Event 1: A flash of light leaves a source

at O’.

Event 2: The flash returns to O’ after

having been reflected from mirror a
distance d away.

The time interval to between 2 events as measured by Mavis

is
2d
to =
c
Relativity of Time Intervals
Consider an observer (Stanley) on reference frame S
observing the same 2 events.

He measures a
different time interval t
between 2 events.

2l
t =
c
where,

 ut 
2

l  d  2

 2 
How are to and t related?
As measured by Stanley in S,

 ut 
2 cto
2l 2
t   d 
2
 but d
c c  2  2

2  cto   ut  
4  cto   ut  
2 2 2 2

t      t  2 
2
   
c  2   2  c  2   2  


     
2 2 2 2
u t u t
t   to   2  t 2  2  to
2 2 2

  c  c
PROPER TIME to
There is only one frame of reference where a clock is at rest.

•The time interval measured by a clock in the rest frame is called the
proper time to.

•The time interval between two events that occur in the same point
in space is proper time to.

•The time interval measured by a clock outside the rest frame is

called the dilated time t.

•The time interval between two events that occur in different points
in space is dilated time t.
TIME DILATION

u t 2 2  u 2

t 1  2   to
2 2
t  2  to
2 2

c  c 

to
t 
u2
1 2
c

Since 
1 u 2 / c2  is always less than 1, Stanley
measures a longer time interval t than to for Mavis.

Observers measure a clock to run slow if it moves relative to them.

(a) The two events occurred at the same point in space as observed by
the Martian, so the Martian measures the proper time.

(b) As observed by the pilot, the two events occurred at two different
points in space.

to 75s
t    435s
u 2
1  0.985 2
1 2
c
(a) The time interval that you 1.2 x108 m
measured is t   0.500 s
0.8c
The time interval that the
pilot measured is to  (0.500 s) 1  0.82  0.300 s

(b) (0.8c)(0.300s)  7.2 x107 m

 t is the time that 42.2 ly
elapses as measured in the earth t   42.6 y
frame. The distance 42.2 ly is 0.9910c
measured in the earth frame.

The proper time to is measured by the clock on the space

probe.

to  (42.6 y ) 1  0.9910 2  5.70 y

The biological age of the astronaut would be 19 y + 5.70 y
= 24.70 y!
Relativity of Length
Consider an observer (Mavis) on a reference frame S’ moving
with a velocity u (where u < c) relative to another reference frame S.

Mavis measures the length of the meterstick to be lo since it is in

her rest frame S’. A light source is attached at one end of the meterstick
and a mirror at the other end.

The time interval for the back and forth motion of the light (as
measured by Mavis )is to.
2lo
to =
c
 Relativity of Length

As observed by Stanley on the

platform (S), the meterstick is moving relative
to him with a velocity u and he measures its
length to be l.

On the way to the mirror, light travels a distance

d1 = l + ut1
On the way back to the source, light travels a distance
d2 = l - ut2
Relativity of Length
On the way to the mirror:

d1  l  ut1
l
d1  ct1 t1 
c u
l  ut1  ct1

On the way back to the source:

d 2  l  ut2
l
d 2  ct2 t 2 
cu
l  ut2  ct2
Relativity of Length
The total time of travel is t  t1  t2

l l
t   2lo u2
c u c u  t 1  2
c c
2l
t  2lo
 u2  t 
c1  2  u2
 c  c 1 2
c
u2
Recall: to  t 1  2 2l 2lo
c 
 u  2
u 2
2l
t o  o c1  2  c 1  2
c  c  c
Relativity of Length: Length Contraction

l lo
 u 2
 u  2
u 2
l  lo 1 2
1  2  1 2
 c  c c
Observers measure an object to be shorter (than when measured
in its rest frame) if it moves relative to them.

The length of a body measured in a frame in which the body is

at rest is called the proper length (lo).

The length of a body measured in any frame moving relative to

the frame in which the body is at rest is called the contracted length
(l).
Length Contraction
There is no contraction of lengths perpendicular to the direction
of motion.
 The length of the moving spacecraft as measured on Coruscant is l
= 74.0 m.

l
u 2 lo 
l  lo 1 2 u2
c 1 2
c
l 74.0m
lo    92.5 m
(0.6c) 2 0.8
1
c2
  u 2
  l2  2
l  lo 1  2 
2
u  1  2 c
2

 c   lo 
l2 u2
2
 1 2  0.30482  2
lo c u  1  2
c  0.9524c
 1 
u2 l2
 1 2
c 2
lo u  2.86 x108 m / s
(a) The scientist measures the distance 45km in his rest frame, so lo =
45.0km. The time as measured by the scientist is

45km 4
t   1.51x10 s
0.99540c
(b) The distance as measured in the particle’s frame is contracted
length, so

(0.99540c) 2
l  45km 1  2
 4.31 km
c
(c) The time as measured in the particle’s frame is
4.31km
to   1.44 x10 5 s
0.99540c
Also,

 
to  1.51x10 4 s 1  0.99540 2  1.44 x10 5 s
 The side of the cube parallel to the direction of motion is
contracted.

u2
a'  a 1  2
c
The volume of the cube as measured in S’ is

 2 
 
2
u u
V '  a 2  a 1  2   a3 1  2
 c  c
 
 u2
b  1.40b 1  2
c
2
 1  2
u  1   c  0.700c
 1.40 
u2
b  a 1 2
c u  2.10 x108 m / s
2. A new planet Jretsim is 20 lightyears from Earth.
Jasper boards his Spaceship Astign from Earth and
zips to Jretsim at 80.0% the speed of light. After 10
years (on Earth), Kilroy boards his newer Spaceship
Aguro and flies to Jretsim. If Kilroy and Jasper arrive
at Jretsim at the same time, how fast is Spaceship
Aguro?

ANSWER: 0.970c
3. Planet X is 30.0 light years away (as measured from
earth). Albert left for Planet X aboard a spaceship that
travels at 0.800 c. He was 20.0 years old when he left
the earth. After 10.0 years on earth, his twin brother
William missed him and decided to follow him to Planet
X aboard a more modern spaceship that travels at
0.900c.
(a) Who will reach Planet X first and by how many years is
he ahead of the other?

(b) How old are Albert and William when they reach Planet
X?
(c) If William reaches Planet X at the same time as Albert,
how fast should William’s spaceship be?
The Lorentz Coordinate Transformation
Consider two inertial frames S and S’ with S’ moving with
constant velocity u (in the +x direction) relative to S and that their
origins O and O’ coincide at t = t’ = 0.
When an event at coordinates (x, y, z) happens in S at time t
as observed in S, what are the coordinates (x’, y’, z’) and time t’ of
the same event as observed in S’?

As observed in S:
x  ut
u 2 x' 
x  ut  x' 1  2 u2
c 1 2
c
As observed in S’:
x  ut u2
u 2
Equating the  ut '  x 1  2
x'  ut '  x 1  2 u 2 c
c two: 1 2
c
The Lorentz Coordinate Transformation

ux
x  ut t
x'  c 2

u2 t' 
1 2 u2
c 1 2
c

where: x’ is the position measured in S’.

x is the position measured in S.
t is the time measured in S.
t’ is the time measured in S’.
u is the velocity of S’ relative to S.

NOTE: If u  0, x = x’+ut and t = t’

y = y’ and z = z’
The Lorentz Velocity Transformation
Consider a particle that moves a distance dx in a time dt as
measured in S.

In frame S’, the particle moves a distance dx’ in a time dt’.

dx  udt dx' dx  udt

dx'  
u2 dt ' dt  udx / c 2
1 2
c
dx vx  u
u vx ' 
dt  udx / c 2 dx'
 dt
u
1  2 vx
dt ' 
u2 dt ' 1  u dx c
1 2 c 2 dt
c
The Lorentz Velocity Transformation

vx  u v x 'u v x 'v x
vx '  vx  u
uv x uv' x v x v' x
1 2 1 2 1
c c c 2

where: vx ’ is the velocity of the particle measured in S’.

vx is the velocity of the particle measured in S.

NOTE: If u and vx << c, vx’ = vx – u and vx = vx‘+ u

If vx = c, vx’ = c
Anything moving with velocity equal to c in frame S is also
moving with a velocity c in S’.
Anything moving with velocity less than c in frame S is
also moving with a velocity less than c in S’.
(a)
v x 'u 0.400c  0.600c
vx    0.806c
u 0.600c
1  2 v' x 1  2
(0.400c)
c c

(b) v x 'u 0.900c  0.600c

vx    0.974c
u 0.600c
1  2 v' x 1  2
(0.900c)
c c
 Let S be the laboratory’s frame and S’ the 1st particle’s frame.

u = 0.650c, vx’ =- 0.950c

v x 'u -0.950c  0.650c

vx    - 0.784c
u 0.650c
1  2 v' x 1  2
(0.950c)
c c
 u  0.400c vx ' 0.700c

Let S be the starfighter’s frame and S’ the enemy ship’s frame.

(a)
v x 'u 0.700c  0.400c
vx    0.859c
u 0.400c
1  2 v' x 1  2
(0.700c)
c c

(b)
x 8.00 x109 m
t   31.0s
vx 0.859c
Relativistic Momentum

Suppose a particle is at rest in a reference frame. The mass

of the particle measured in this frame is called its rest mass mo.

When the particle is moving with a velocity v, its relativistic

momentum is

mo v If v << c, p = mov
p
v2 If v  c, p  
1 2
c Momentum is not directly
proportional to velocity!!!
Relativistic Mass

mo If v << c, m = mo
m
v2 If v  c, m  
1 2
c
Relativistic Kinetic Energy (K)
2 where moc2 is called the rest energy
mo c
K  mo c 2 Eo.
v2
1 2 Eo  mo c 2
c

If v  c, K  
If v << c, K = ½ mv2
Total Energy (E)
E  K  mo c 2
2 mo c 2
mo c
 K  mo c 2 E
v2
1 2
2
v
1 2 c
c