asked, but researchers never collect facts they create facts” Alfred N Whitehead Introduction Data collection is a crucial stage in the planning and implementation of a study. data analysis becomes difficult when the data collection has been - superficial, - biased or - incomplete, Therefore, we should concentrate all possible efforts on developing appropriate tools, and should test them several times. Depending on the type of study, different data-collection techniques may be used. In HSR studies we usually combine a number of different techniques and look at problems from different perspectives (triangulation). The choice of methods of data collection is based on: – The resource required – Acceptability of the method – Coverage of the method – Familiarization of the procedure – Relevance – The accuracy of information they will yield – Practical considerations, such as, the need for personnel, time, equipment and other facilities, in relation to what is available OVERVIEW OF DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our - objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) - the settings in which they occur. In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way. Table 1: Data collection techniques and tools Various data collection techniques can be used such as: – Using available information – Observing – Interviewing – Administering written questionnaires – Focus group discussions – Projective techniques, mapping, scaling 1. Using available information/documentary sources Locating the sources and retrieving the information is a good starting point in any data collection effort. These include: health information system data, census data, unpublished reports publications Clinical records personal records, death certificates, published mortality statistics, census publications, etc key informants newspapers Advantages: Documents can provide ready made information relatively easily The best means of studying past events. Data collection is inexpensive Disadvantages: Problems of reliability and validity There is a possibility that errors may occur when the information is extracted from the records. Since the records are maintained not for research purposes, but for clinical, administrative or other ends, the information required may not be recorded at all, or only partly recorded. 2. Observing Is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and recording behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena. Observation of human behavior is a much- used data collection technique. It can be undertaken in different ways: Participant observation Non-participant observation Structured observation Unstructured observation Advantages: • Give additional, more accurate information on behavior of people than interviews or questionnaires. • Check on the information collected through interviews especially on sensitive topics such as alcohol or drug use, or stigmatizing diseases. • They can also be made on objects. For example, the presence or absence of a latrine and its state of cleanliness may be observed. • They would be the major research technique. Disadvantages: They are time consuming They are most often used in small-scale studies. Investigators or observers own bias, prejudices, desires, etc Needs more resources and skill human power during the use of high level machines. Ethical issues 3. Interviewing • Is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either individually or as a group. • Based on qualitative or quantitative or both, type of data collection can be: Face to face interview Telephone interview Self-reported/completed questionnaire Advantages: can stimulate and maintain the respondents interest the frank answering of questions. If anxiety is aroused the interviewer can allay it. can repeat questions which are not understood, and give standardized explanations where necessary. An interviewer can ask “follow-up” or “probing” questions to clarify a response. can make observations during the interview; Disadvantages: – Time consuming – Normally need a set of – Need to set up interviews questions – Geographic limitations – Can be expensive – Respondent bias 4. Administering written questionnaires Is a data collection technique in which written questions are presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written form. It can be administered in different ways, such as by: • Sending questionnaires by mail • Self-administered questionnaires • Interviewer -administered questionnaires