To Chemistry

What Is Hydrogen ?
Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of
1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant
chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass . Non-remnant stars are
mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium
(name rarely used, symbol 1H), has one proton and no neutrons. The universal emergence of atomic
hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is
a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular
formula H2. Since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the
hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays a
particularly important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of
protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a negative charge
(i.e., anion) when it is known as a hydride, or as a positively charged (i.e., cation) species denoted by the
symbol H+. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen
cations in ionic compounds are always more complex. As the only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger
equation can be solved analytically, study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom has played a
key role in the development of quantum mechanics. Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early
16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize that
hydrogen gas was a discrete substance, and that it produces water when burned, the property for which it
was later named: in Greek, hydrogen means "water-former".
 What Is The Production Of H2 In The
Universe ?
Inpouring rivers of hydrogen gas could explain how spiral galaxies maintain the constant star formation that dominates
their hearts, a new study reports. Using the Green Bank Telescope (GBT) in West Virginia, scientists observed a tenuous
filament of gas streaming into the galaxy NGC 6946, known as the "Fireworks Galaxy" because of the large number of
supernovae observed within it. The find may provide insight into the source of fuel that powers the ongoing birth of
young stars, researchers said. "We knew that the fuel for star formation had to come from somewhere," study lead
author D.J. Pisano, of West Virginia University, said in a statement. "So far, however, we've detected only about 10
percent of what would be necessary to explain whaLocated 22 million light-years from Earth on the border of the
constellations Cepheus and Cygnus, NGC 6946 is a medium-sized spiral galaxy pointed face-on toward the Milky Way.
Previous studies revealed a halo of hydrogen gas around NGC 6946 common to spiral galaxies. Such halos are formed by
hydrogen ejected from the galaxies by star formation and violent supernova explosions. These interactions heat the gas
in the halo to extreme temperatures. When Pisano turned the GBT toward the spiral galaxy for further examination,
however, he discovered a ribbon of gas too cool to have suffered the heating processes undergone by halo gas. On
average, the Milky Way churns out between 1 to 5 new stars per year. Rich in gas, NGC 6946 is far more active. For
example, it has hosted at least 9 explosiv"Starburst" galaxies are even more prolific. These productive galaxies should
have burned through the gas they were born with over the course of their lifetimes, bringing star formation to a sudden
halt. Instead, the process continues today, suggesting that something is continuing to supply them with sufficient gas to
keep creating more stars. "A leading theory is that rivers of hydrogen — known as cold flows — may be ferrying hydrogen
through intergalactic space, clandestinely fueling star formation," Pisano said. "But this tenuous hydrogen has simply
been too diffuse to detect, until now. "The immense, unblocked dish of the Green Bank Telescope, combined with its
location in the National Radio Quiet Zone, where radio transmissions are limited, allow the large disk to detect the faint
hydrogen signal that would be present in a cold flow. Another possibility is that the hydrogen detected originated from a
close encounter with another galaxy in the past. The gravitational interaction between the two could have stretched out
a ribbon of neutral atomic hydrogen, researchers said. Such a ribbon would contain stars that astronomers should be able
to easily observe, though none have yet been spotted. Further studies of the streamer hydrogen gas will help clarify its
role supernovae in the past century.t we observe in many galaxies."
 What Is The Uses Of H2 Production ?
Rockets:
Since hydrogen is highly flammable, especially when mixed with pure oxygen, it is used as a fuel
in rockets. Usually, they combine liquid hydrogen with liquid oxygen to make an explosive
mixture. Unfortunately, in 1986, the U.S. Space Shuttle Challenger exploded when a flame
accidentally ignited the liquid hydrogen in an external fuel tank. This again showed that the gas
can be dangerous and cause a disaster in some situations.
Clean fuel for cars :
But also, hydrogen is one of the cleanest fuels because when it burns, the result is simple water.
That is why there are efforts to create engines that can power automobiles on hydrogen. This
would greatly help to reduce the air pollution and global warming problems. Although
hydrogen is highly flammable, so also is gasoline. Although care must be taken, the amount of
hydrogen used in an automobile would present no more of a hazard than the amount of
gasoline used. One problem with using hydrogen to directly power an automobile is that it is
very expensive to create pure hydrogen for this use. Also, the most common method to create
hydrogen for use in cars is with methane (CH4) gas. Although burning the hydrogen is pollution-
free, methane is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect of global warming.
What Is Apparatus For Producing H2 From Salty
Water By Electrolysis Process And How ?
In pure water at the negatively charged cathode, a reduction reaction takes place, with electrons (e−) from the cathode
being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen gas. The half reaction, balanced with acid, is:
Reduction at cathode: 2 H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
At the positively charged anode, an oxidation reaction occurs, generating oxygen gas and giving electrons to the anode
to complete the circuit:
Oxidation at anode: 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4es−
The same half reactions can also be balanced with base as listed below. Not all half reactions must be balanced with
acid or base. Many do, like the oxidation or reduction of water listed here. To add half reactions they must both be
balanced with either acid or base. The acid-balanced reactions predominate in acidic (low pH) solutions, while the
base-balanced reactions predominate in basic (high pH) solutions.

Cathode (reduction): 2 H2O(l) + 2e−→H2(g) + 2 OH−(aq)

Anode (oxidation): 4 OH−(aq)→O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 es−
Combining either half reaction pair yields the same overall decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen:

Overall reaction: 2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)

The number of hydrogen molecules produced is thus twice the number of oxygen molecules. Assuming equal
temperature and pressure for both gases, the produced hydrogen gas has therefore twice the volume of the produced
oxygen gas. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of generated hydrogen molecules
and four times the number of generated oxygen molecules.
Created by : Moaaz Usama.
Class : 8
Teacher name : Sir Qamar.