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L02
L02
L02
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Figure 2.3
(a) Bohr atom
(b) Wave mechanical
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Electronic structure of isolated atoms
• The characteristics below stem from their wavelike nature.
– electrons are in orbitals
– each orbital is at a discrete energy level determined by its quantum
numbers
– the letter designations below were given to bands observed in optical
emission and absorption, but not understood at the time.
4d
4p N-shell n = 4
3d
4s
Energy 3p M-shell n = 3
3s
Two electrons of
2p opposite spin can
L-shell n = 2 be in each level.
2s
1s K-shell n = 1
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Ground-state energy levels of some elements
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s 1
Helium 2 1s 2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s 2 2s 1
Beryllium 4 1s 2 2s 2
Boron 5 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1
Carbon 6 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2
... ...
Neon 10 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1
... ...
Argon 18 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 10 4s 2 4p 6 (stable)
The electron configuration is stable only for the noble gases. Except
for noble gases, the outer shell is not completely filled and so one or
more electrons may be lost or gained to form an ion,
or shared in a covalent bond.
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Table 2.7 in the text has the 1960 values of Pauling.
Electronegativity The revised values below are generally used now.
accepts donates
electrons electrons
• The greater the difference in electronegativity, the greater the tendency to
form an ionic bond.
• Consider magnesium and oxygen with electronegativities of 1.31 and 3.44.
• Here’s what happens when Mg and O come near one another:
+ -
Coulombic
Attraction
Ionic bonding between one cation (+)
and one anion (-)
r0
Repulsive energy ER
Interatomic separation r
Net energy EN
-
A +
B
EN = EA + ER =
r rn
Attractive energy EA
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Ionic bonding in a crystal
H C H
shared electrons
H from hydrogen
atoms
Methane orbitals
• Hybrid orbitals
Covalent orbitals
Mixed Ionic-Covalent Bonding
• Ionic-Covalent Mixed Bonding ( X - X ) 2
- A B
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Secondary (van der Waals) bonds
Arises from interaction between electric dipoles
+ - + - H H H H
• Permanent dipoles
-general case: + - + -
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Table 2.3.
Properties From Bonding: Melting point
Interaction energy E Melting Temperature, Tm
versus atomic separation r Energy
Energy
r
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Properties From Bonding: Thermal expansion
Coefficient of thermal expansion, a
length, L o coeff. thermal expansion
unheated, T1
DL DL
= a (T2 -T1)
heated, T 2 Lo
Energy
ro
r a is larger when Eo is smaller
Eo larger a
Eo smaller a
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