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Chapter 6
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
• Introduction
• Wired MAC Layer
• The LLC Layer, Wireless MAC
• The MAC Layer,
• The Generic Frame Structure,
• Connecting Device at Data Link Layer,
• Virtual LAN
A. Need of MAC Layer
• Introduction and need for MAC layer
– Shared Channel Concept (need of access point or base station)
– Collision detection and avoidance(prefread in wi-LAN)
– Channel acquisition issues
– Ad-hoc and Infrastructure modes
MAC – Medium Access Control Layer
• The basic idea behind broadcast networks is how to determine who gets
to use the channel when many users want to transmit over it.
• MAC:
– In networks, this job is performed by MAC Medium Access Control sub layer.
– This layer sits between physical and data link layer.
2. Collision Detection & Avoidance:
• Infrastructure Mode:
– Access point works as arbitrator.
– All communication happens with access point’s permission.
– So no probability of collision.
– Called PCF, Point Co-ordination Function.
• Ad-hoc Mode:
– Directly communicates, so chance of collision.
– Has problem of Hidden Station and Exposed Station problem.
– Uses RTS and CTS(Request To Send and Clear To Send)
– Called DCF,(Distributed Co-ordination Function. )
By standard, DCF is compulsory, while PCF is not.
• Almost all 802.11 LANs implement both.
• Wired MAC is easy and has less collision issue like hidden and
exposed station problem, whereas, Wireless MAC is a bit complex.
Infrastructure or PCF(Point Coordination Function) mode:
Ad hoc Mode, DCF (Distributed Coordination Function):
Both modes together in same network:
B. Wired MAC Layer
• ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA
• Ethernet
– Fast Ethernet
– Gigabit Ethernet
– The 10 Gb Ethernet
– Future versions
• Dual speed cards, auto-negotiation and upgrades
• 802.2, the LLC layer
1. ALOHA
• Bob Metcalfe and David Boggs are the master mind behind
Ethernet design.
• All system is connected to single central bus using vampire tap
and T-connector.
• Bus is made up of co-axial cable having capacity of 2.94 Mbps.
• Later intel and DEC joined and offered upto 10Mbps.
• This standard was named as DIX By Digital Equipment Co-
operation, Intel and Xerox.
• Later it joined with Compaq and HP.
• This model was found far superior than design of Aloha.
Ethernet
Characteristics:
– Sender can listen to every node before transmitting and so can stop if somebody is
already transmitting.
– If channel is idle, can start transmitting. If more than 1 sender started transmission,
sender immediately realize collision, stop.
– Then it follows binary exponential back-off algorithm and try after random amount of
time.
– Collision occur only if the first sender’s signal has not reached the second sender.
– If collision occurred, start with min 64 bytes pkt size and less than 2500meters
distance covering limit. This limits loss and bandwidth wastage.
– To inform others that collision has occurred, sender sends JAM Signals.
• Poor design for heavy traffic.
• Types of Ethernet
• Classical Ethernet
• Fast Ethernet
• Gigabit Ethernet
• The 10 Gb Ethernet
Ethernet First Version with Bus
Topology:
Classic Ethernet 802.3
• Two standards, DIX(DEC, Intel and Xerox) which later became 802.3
(IEEE).
• IEEE assigns a unique number to every standard. Ethernet is assigned
802.3.
• Initially Bus and Hubs were used
• Later switches took over
• Simple Principle: ‘Let everyone transmit whenever they wish to without
any formalities.’
• Classic Ethernet provide 10Mb communication using Manchester
Encoding Technique.
Types of connection: See next table.
– Cat-3 Twisted Pair
– Thin Co-ax
– Thick Co-ax
– Fiber Optics
Problems: Twisted Pair
–It is difficult to attach nodes using coaxial or cat-3 cables.
- A machine cannot be added or removed without affecting others.
– Total capacity is shared which reduces overall capacity for single user.
– Maintenance is difficult.
Problems: Co-axial
– Difficult to locate where the fault is.
Manchester Encoding:
– Digital Signalling
– Also called Baseband Signalling.
– Hence base is added to the names.
– Name carry the features “10 Base 5” means 10 Mbps bandwidth digital signal with
500 m distance covered by co-ax cable.
Classsic Ethernet Connection
Types
Length
Name Type Advantage
(Max)
• Solution?
• Use different path for sending and receiving.
• Switch improved the performance by reducing collision domain
FRAME STRUCTURE
A signal central around a positive value is equal to a signal centered at zero plus a
positive continuous voltage signal (DC Component).
A signal central around a positive value
is equal to a signal centered at zero plus a
positive continuous voltage signal (DC
Component)
The Paradigm S hift: PtoP from
shared
• Coaxial cable and multi-drop is discouraged
• Multidrop :
– Hubs were replaced by switches
– Two machines connected to a single hub can not transmit at the
same time.
– Thus hubs have muti drop characteristic.
• Point to Point and full duplex transmissions
• Reducing collision domain
• Distance limit is lifted, Ethernet is used for first mile now
• Ethernet remain unfazed after 40 years
• Thus paradigm shift has occurred.
Gigabit Ethernet
When Fast Ethernet came, there were 10/100 cards could operate upon two
speeds.
When Gigabit Ethernet came, we had cards capable of supporting 10/100/1000
speed types.
So for users it is easy to upgrade from classic Ethernet to Gigabit Ethernets.
This cards are called Dual Speed Cards.
Auto Negotiation
10 Mbps when realize that other end is capable of working at 100 Mbps, it
automatically start operating at 100 Mbps.
Even Gigabit Cards can work upon all 3 speeds, 10/100/1000.
This is process of capability negotiation which is done without user’s intervention.
User can upgrade without worry of compatibility with communicating networks.
Can boost speed and performance is used with switch.
C. The LLC layer
Content of frame is not determined by MAC header, so it is provided by LLC (Logical
Link Layer).
LLC Jobs:
o Hides MAC address from Network Layer.
o Provide connection oriented primitives that MAC can not do.
o Can provide service of establishing connection.
o Gives sequence number
o Providing ACK.
Ethernet do not need LCC, DIX frames can omit LLC layer as internet needs to have
only type of information and no connection establishment service needed.
D. Wireless MAC Layer
• The Wireless LAN protocol (802.11)
• The DCF Mode
• Fragmentation in DCF mode
• The PCF mode
• Managing PCF and DCF modes together
• The 802.11 frame
1. Wireless transmission in
802.11
• Problems
• 1. Hidden and Exposed station problem
• 2. Frequency allocation issues
• 3. Signal fading (free space path loss)
• 4. Interference
• 5. Multipath fading
• 6. Restriction on power (sender’s power, signal strength)
• 7. LOS vs NLOS (line of sight)
• 8. Placement of physical obstacle (beneficial as offer bouncing of signals,
see next fig)
• 9. Frequency range (wifi 2.48Ghz, ISM 4.33 MHz long distance)
10. 802.11a is vulnerable to rainfall and vegetation.
11. Modulation scheme (OFDM provides 54Mbps in 802.11g and DSSS only 11Mbps in
802.11b)
Placement of obstacles:
Placement of obstacles
2. DC F (Ad Hoc) mode
• Computers communicate directly
• Compulsory mode
• With or without CSMA/CA
• Collision invites Binary exponential backoff
• Unlike Ethernet, stop and wait is used
• Fragments are sent when noise is higher
Ad Hoc mode with C S MA/C A
Steps to manage RTS and CTS:
Different Inter-frame
spacing
5. Managing PCF and DCF Modes Together:
• DCF and PCF impose delay but they are the best design to prioritize transmission.
• PCF is given higher priority over DCF
• Before starting any communication, each user need to wait for SIFS and already
communicating parties to complete the communication.
• Each ad hoc mode needs to wait for DIFS which is longer than PIFS to let PCF flows
complete communication.
• Priority from higher to lower goes like this, ACK, CTS, Fragments, then comes PCF
and at last comes DCF and then if errors, NACK.
• Similarly, SIFS then PIFS, DIFS and then EIFS.
• Still there is a chance of collision if at same time two users sends RTS.
6. 802.11 Frame
Frame C ontrol
802.11 802.16
• designed for LAN • designed for MAN
• 2.4 GHz ISM band for its • 10 to 66 GHz range
versions ‘b’ and ‘g’. • Now also available in the
• It used the 5 GHz ISM band range near to the 802.11.
for its version ‘a’. • More than 70 Mbps with
• 11 MB with type ‘b’ and less than 1 km of distance
54 MB with either ‘a’ or ‘g’. • it can reach up to 50 km
Difference between .11 and .16
802.11 802.16
• A small range and no LOS • LOS and NLOS are available
• Wireless Ethernet • broadband Internet
• Connectionless • Connection oriented
• Original design include • Latest version include
mobility mobility
• Security is being addressed • Security is considered in the
now beginning
E. The MAC Layer
• Provides Connection-oriented service. i.e go-backN, sliding window and all
protocols establishing connections are included here.
• Provides QoS (Quality of Service).
• Connection Establishment and Withdrawal is done on every communication.
• But this adds lot of overhead.
• Intelligent to overcome overheads as 802.16 is capable of sending back to back
frames, this is how we can overcome overheads.
• Provides better service to VOIP like apps
• During telephone connection, gap between words are maintained till signals reach
the destination.
• But bandwidth in internet doesn’t remain constant.
• Thus, network service is affected.
• This delay is tolerable while browsing, but not for VoIP applications, video
conferencing and video calling.
Some Facts:
– Latency is less than 100ms doesn’t affect QoS.
– Some users will be able to realize latency over 120ms.
– Most users will notice latency over 150ms.
– Humans are intolerant to speech delays of more than 200ms.
• Four service classes
– Base station polling for first three classes
– Ethernet like response for forth class
– Dynamic allocation of channels
S ervice C lasses
1. CBR: Unsolicited grant service or constant bit rate(CBR) service,
2. RBR: Real-time polling service (also extended real-time polling service only for Mobile WiMax
in 802.16e) or variable bit rate(RBR) real-time service,
3. NRVBR: Non-real-time polling service or non-real-time variable bit rate(NRBR) service, and
4. Best effort service
• Lowest Priority.
• Uses whatever is left over from all above 3 classes.
• Eg. Email having attachment files.
• Demands neither real time nor variable bandwidth.
• Like Ethernet, have chance of collision, resolved by Binary Exponential Back
off Algorithm
How all 4 class requirement of subscriber fulfilled by
provider?
• Two options are available: 1) Bridge (Physical Connectivity) and 2) VLAN (Logical
Connectivity).
G. Virtual LAN
• Networks can also be connected in a logical way which is simpler and easier for a
user, but cumbersome for an administrator to manage.
• Solution is called Virtual LAN.
• In Virtual LAN, irrespective of where a node is situated, it can be a part of the
network it wants to be.
• A student with his laptop can get connected to the campus network from any
place.
• Virtual LAN is useful for two important purpose:
o Irrespective of the physical location, a user can be a part of any of his network.
o User receives anything that is broadcasted in his own network.
• A Virtual LAN is a LAN where the machines, without physical proximity, can be a
member of a LAN.
• The machine that changes its network just needs to change its membership status
which is indicated by different color and size and VLAN tags in actual sense.
• In a VLAN, a node can decide the network it belongs to and inform the switch
accordingly.
• An accountant of some department may go and sit in accounts department of the
company in the month of March and come back in middle of April.
• This is done by having switches which are capable of understanding both, physical
connections and logical network they belong to.
• Thus, VLAN aware switch remembers that port 1 belongs to network A, port 2
belongs to network B and so on.
• These switches are configurable such that, a sure can indicate that earlier port-1
belongs to Network B and now it belongs to Network A.
• Manageable switches are the ones which are locally or remotely configurable.
• A user will remotely login to a switch and change the port and other information from
his machine.
• Manageable switches are usually VLAN aware.
Conventional LAN, moving the node:
Manual Shifting of a machine from one network to another.
Changing the membership VLAN way, changing the port membership.
Virtual LAN. The switches are VLAN-aware. If node ‘b’ wants to join network A, it
can do so without relocating. The node informs the switch which does the needful
by changing a table resident in its memory.
VLAN Standardization and Frame Format:
• Standard: 802.1Q
• VLAN protocol ID: Fixed. 0x8100.
• VLAN tag: Also provides additional information about VLAN
• Only 2 extra fields are added to VLAN enabled Headers. Others are same as
Ethernet.
• The cards that understands this new Header is known as VLAN-Aware Cards.
• Usually switches contain such cards.
• Priority: Indicates that it contains priority value which is not concerned with VLAN
• CFI: Canonical Format Indicator, expecting fixed format.
• VLAN Identifier: It identifies VLAN uniquely.
• See figure on next page.
VLAN Operations:
• A VLAN operation starts when frame arrives at the first VLAN aware switches or
bridge.
• Fames add VLAN PID and also tag information in the frame.
• If machine do not have VLAN aware card, then switch should attach that information
before forwarding.
• First way to keep the information of configuration table using MAC address.
• MSTP: Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol in 802.1Q can work like spanning tree in
normal LAN. This protocol can block alternate path between any two VLANs, keeping
only one path open to avoid loops. This protocol is backward compatible fully and can
work with legacy Ethernet Bridges and Switches.
• Maximum frame size is extended to 1522
• All machines belong to a unique virtual LAN
• Otherwise the switch should add VLAN tag
• VLAN aware switches
• MAC, IP Address or Port number can be used as a separator
• Not good from purist point of view
• MSTP to avoid loops