Limits

Limits are used to describe how a function behave as the independent variable move toward
2
a certain value. Consider a funtion f ( x )  x  1  x  1 , x  1 and the tables below .
x 1

x f ( x) x f ( x)
1.1 2.1 0.9 1.9
1.01 2.01 0.99 1.99
1,001 2.001 0.999 1.999
1.0001 2.0001 0.9999 1.9999
1.00001 2.00001 0.99999 1.99999
Table 1 Table2

2 2
lim f ( x )  lim x  1 lim f ( x )  lim x  1
x 1 x 1 x  1 x 1 x 1 x  1

 lim
 x  1 x  1  lim
 x  1 x  1
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
 lim  x  1  lim  x  1
x 1 x 1
2 2
Since lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )  2 , therefore lim f ( x )  2 .
x 1 x 1 x 1

The function is undefined at x  1 but the limit does exist.

 2
Actually, the graph of f ( x )  x  1  x  1 , x  1 is as shown below.
x 1
y

Definition
I) If the value of f ( x ) approaches the numnber L1 as x approaches c from the
right, we write lim f ( x )  L1 .
x c
II) If the value of f ( x ) approaches the numnber L2 as x approaches c from the
left, we write lim f ( x )  L2 .
xc
III) If the limit from the left is the same as the limit from the right say
lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )  L ( L  L2  L1 ) , then we write lim f ( x )  L . Otherwise,
xc xc xc
the limit does not exist.
Note : The limit of a function as independent variable approaches a value, actually not the
value of the function at the value of independent variable.
Example
 2x  4 if x3 y

f ( x )  4 if x3
 x2  7 if x3


x3 x3

lim f ( x )  lim x 2  7  2 x

lim f ( x )  lim  2 x  4   2
x  3 x3
lim f ( x )  2
x3

Example
 2 if x0
y
f ( x)   x
  2 x  2  if x0

lim
x0
f ( x )  lim
x 0
 2( x  2)  4 x

lim f ( x )  lim 2  
x0 x0 x
lim f ( x ) does not exist
x 0
Example
f ( x)   1 y
x3

lim   1
x  3
lim  f ( x )  
x  3 lim   x  3
x  3 x
-3
lim  1
x  3 
lim f ( x )   
x  3  lim   x  3 
x  3
lim f ( x ) does not exist
x  3

Example
f ( x)  1 y
 x  2 2
lim 1
x 2
lim f ( x )  
x  2 lim  x  2  2
2 x
x  2
lim 1
x2
lim f ( x )  
x2 lim  x  2  2
x  2
lim f ( x )  
x2
Example { lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) }
x   x  
y

4
lim f ( x )  1
x  
lim f ( x )  4
x  
x
-1

Example { lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) }

x   x  
y

6
lim f ( x )  6
x  
lim f ( x )  
x  
-3 x
Example { lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) }
x   x  
y
lim f ( x )  
x  
lim f ( x )  
x  

-3 2 6 x

Limit (Computational techniques)

lim k  k , where k is a constant.

xc
lim k  lim k  k
x   x  
lim x  c
xc
Example lim x  3 lim x  0 lim x  2
x3 x 0 x  2

lim x   lim x  
x   x  

lim 1   lim 1   lim 1 does not exist

x 0 x x0 x x 0x

lim 1  1 lim  1   1
x3 x 3 x  2 x 2

lim 1  0 lim 1  0
x   x x   x
Theorem
Let lim stand for one of the limits lim , lim , lim , lim or lim . If lim f ( x )  L1 and
x c x c x c x   x  
lim f ( x )  L2 both exist, then

a) lim f ( x )  g ( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g( x )  L1  L2 .

b) lim f ( x )  g( x )  lim f ( x )  lim g ( x )  L1  L2 .

c) lim f ( x ) g ( x )  lim f ( x ) lim g ( x )  L1 L2 .

 f ( x )  lim f ( x ) L1
d) lim   , if L2  0 .
 g ( x )  lim g( x ) L2

e) lim n f ( x )  n lim f ( x )  n L1 , provided L1  0 if n is even .

Example

a)
x3
 
lim x 2  4 x  3  lim x 2  4 lim x  lim 3  3 2  4( 3)  3  0
x3 x3 x3

lim  5 x  4
5 x  4 x  4 5( 4)  4
b) lim   8
x  4 x  2 lim  x  2 4 2
x  4

c)
2
lim x  4  lim
 x  2 x  2  lim  x  2  4
x2 x  2 x2 x2 x2

d) lim 1 x does not exist.

x  2  x  2  x  1

1 x 1 x
lim 
x  2  x  2 x  1   lim 
x  2  x  2 x  1  
Example Find
3
a) lim x  8 b) lim x
x  2 x  2 x0 x 11

3 x  1 if x3
c) lim f ( x ) if f ( x )   2
x 3  3( x  1)  2 if x3

Solution

x3  8  x  2  x 2  2 x  2 2     12
a) lim  lim  lim x 2
 2 x  2 2

x  2
x  2 x  2 x2 x  2

b) lim x  lim x  x  1  1  lim x x  1  1  2

x0 x  1  1 x0 x  1  1 x  1  1 x0 x

c) lim f ( x )  lim ( 3 x  1)  3( 3)  1  10
x  3 x3

lim f ( x )  lim 3( x  1)2  2  3( 2) 2  2  10

x3 x3

 lim f ( x )  10
x3
Example Find

 2  3x if x  2
a) lim f ( x ) if f ( x )   2
x  2  4x  3x  1 if x  2

 x3 - 1 if x2
b) a if f ( x )   2 and lim f ( x ) exists.
 ax  2 if x2 x 2

Solution a) lim  f ( x )  lim  (4 x 2  3 x  1)  4( 2)2  3( 2)  1  9

x  2 x  2

lim f ( x )  lim  2  3 x  2  3( 2)  8  2 2

x  2  x  2

 lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x  2

b) lim f ( x ) exists  lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )

x2 x2 x2

 lim (ax 2  2)  lim ( x 3  1)

x2 x2

 a ( 2) 2  2  ( 2) 3  1
 4a  5
a5
4
Limits for trigonometric functions

Let c is a real number.

a) lim sin x  sin c b) lim cos x  cos c c) lim tan x  tan c

xc xc xc

d) lim csc x  csc c e) lim sec x  sec c f) lim cot x  cot c

xc xc xc

Example

a) lim sin x  sin   1

x 
2
2

tan 
b) lim tan x  4 1  4
x  x  1
 1  1 4
4 4 4

sin x  cos x
c) lim tan x  1  lim cos x  lim 1  1  2
x 
sin x  cos x x   sin x  cos x x   cos x cos 
4 4 4 4
Special Limits

I. lim sin x  1 II. lim 1  cos x  0

x 0 x x0 x

Example

a) lim tan x  lim sin x  lim sin x lim 1  1

x 0 x x  0 x cos x x  0 x x  0 cos x

b) lim sin 4 x  lim sin 4 x  4  4 lim sin 4 x  4

x0 x x0 x 4 x0 4 x

c) lim sin x  cos x sin x  lim sin x (1  cos x )  lim sin x lim 1  cos x  0
x 0 x2 x0 x2 x0 x x0 x
Example (Using lim 1  0 and lim 1  0 )
x   x x   x

3 5 4
3  2x3
a) lim 3 x  5  lim x3 b) lim 3  2 x  lim x  
x   8  6 x x   8  6 6 x   x  1 x   1  1
x x

4 1
2 x x2 4 3
c) lim 4 x 3  x  lim 0 d) lim 3  2 x  lim 3  2 x  
x   2 x  5 x   2  5 x   x  1 x   1  1
x2 x

.
Definition

A line x  c is called a vertical asymptote of a function f ( x ) if f ( x )   or f ( x )   as

x  c  or x  c  .

A line y  L is called a horizontel asymptote of a function f ( x ) if f ( x )  L as x   or

x   .

Theorem

p x 
A line x  c is a vertical asymptote of a rational funtion f ( x )  , if  x  c  is a foctor of the
q x 
denominator q( x ) and not a common factor for p( x ) and q( x ) .
Example Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes if any for the following functions.

a) f ( x)  x  3 b) f ( x)  x
x 1 2
x 4
3
c) f ( x)  2  8
x d) f ( x)  x 1
x 4 x  x2  x  1
3

Solution

a) x  1 is the vertical asymptote.

1 3
lim x  3  lim x  1.  y  1 is the horizontal astmptote
x x  1 x 1  1
x

b) f ( x)  x  x , x  2 and x  2 are the vertical asymptotes.

x 2  4  x  2  x  2
1
lim 2x  lim x  0 .  y  0 is the horizontal astmptote
x x  4 x 1  4
x2
c) x
f ( x)  2
3
 8 
 
x  2 x 2  2 x  4  x  2 is the vertical asymptote.
x 4  x  2 x  2

3
x  82
lim x 2  8  lim x  .  f ( x ) has no horizontal astmptotes
x x  4 x  1  1
x2

x 1  2 x 1 x 1
d) f ( x)  
x  x  x  1 x ( x  1)  x  1 ( x  1) x 2  1
3 2
 
 f ( x ) has no vertical astmptote

1  1
lim 3 x 2 1  lim x2 x3  0.
x x  x  x  1 x 1  1  1  1
x x2 x3

 y  0 is the horizontal astmptote

 2
Example Find a) lim x 2 b) lim x2  2
x 3 x  6 x   3x  6

2
c) the horizontal and vertical asymptotes if any for f ( x)  x 2.
3x  6

Note : x 2  x for x  0 and x 2   x for x  0.

Solution

1  22
a) lim x 2  2  lim x 2  2 / x 2  lim x 1
x 3x  6 x    3 x  6 / x x  3 6 3
x

2 2 2
1  22
b) lim x  2  lim x  2 / x  lim x 1
x   3x  6 x    3 x  6 /   x  x   3  6 3
x

c) From (a) an (b), y  1 and y   1 are the horizontal asymptotes and x  2 is the vertical
3 3
2
asymptote for f ( x )  x 2.
3x  6
Definition

A function f ( x ) is said to be continuous at x  c if the following conditions are satisfied.

a) f (c ) is defined.

b) lim f ( x ) exists
x c

c) lim f ( x )  f (c )
xc
Example Given the graph of f ( x ) .

Determine whether f ( x ) continuous at x  c for c  1,4,6 .

Solution y

At x  1 , f ( 1)  3 and lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x  1
5

 f ( x ) is discontinuous at x  1 .
3

At x  4 , f (4)  5 and lim f ( x )  3 . 6

x4 -1 4 x

 f ( x ) is discontinuous at x  4 .
-2

-3
At x  6 , f (6)  3 and lim f ( x )  3 .
x6

 f ( x ) is continuous at x  6 .
  3x  1 if x  3
2x  6
4  6  x if 3 x 2

Example Given f ( x )  
3 x  3  2  1
.
if 2 x5

 5 if x5
 21  2 x if x5

Determine whether f ( x ) continuous at x  c for c  3,2,5 .

Solution At x  3 , f ( 3)  1 and lim  f ( x )  lim  3 x  1   . lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x  3 x  3 2 x  6 x  3

 f ( x ) is discontinuous at x  3 .

At x  2 , f ( 2)  3( 2  3)2  1  2 , 
lim f ( x )  lim 4  6  x  2 , 
x  2 x2

x2 x2
 
lim f ( x )  lim 3( x  3) 2  1  2 lim f ( x )  2 .
x2
 f ( x ) is continuous at x  2 .

At x  5 , f ( 5)  5 ,

x 5 x 5
 
lim f ( x )  lim 3( x  3) 2  1  11 , lim f ( x )  lim  21  2 x   11 .
x5 x5

lim f ( x )  11  f (5) .  f ( x ) is discontinuous at x  5 .

x2
Derivative of a function

y
f ( x  h) B

f ( x  h)  f ( x )

f ( x) A
From the diagram x
h

x xh x

Gradiaent AB  f ( x  h)  f ( x )
h

Gradiaent of the curve at A  lim f ( x  h)  f ( x )

h 0 h

If y  f ( x ), then

dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 f , ( x )  lim .
dx h 0 h

This process is known as differentiation from the first principles or differentiation using definition.
Example Find the derivative of f ( x )  1 with respect to x from the first principles.
2
x

dy f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Solution  f , ( x )  lim
dx h 0 h

1  1
 lim
 x  h 2 x 2
h 0 h
x 2   x  h 2
 lim
h  0 h x  h  2 x 2
2 2 2
 lim x  x  2 xh  h
h 0 h x  h 2 x 2
2
 lim  2 xh  h
h  0 h x  h 2 x 2

 lim  2 x 2 h 2
h  0  x  h x

  2 x4   23
x x
Example

Given f ( x )  2 x 2  x  2 . Find f ' ( x ) from the first principles.

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Solution f , ( x )  lim
h 0 h

 lim

2 x  h 2   x  h  2  2 x 2  x  2 
h 0 h
2 2 2
 lim 2 x  4 xh  2 h  x  h  2  2 x  x2
h 0 h
2
 lim 4 xh  2h  h
h 0 h
 lim  4 x  2h  1
h 0
 4x  1
Example
1
Given f ( x )  x2. Find f ' ( x ) from the first principles.

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
Solution f , ( x )  lim
h 0 h

 lim xh x  xh x

h 0 h xh x
 lim x  h x

h 0 h x  h  x 
 lim h

h 0 h x  h  x 
 lim 1
h 0 x  h  x

 1
2 x
Example Show that d  cos x    sin x .
dx

Solution d  cos x   f ' ( x ) for f ( x )  cos x .

dx

From the first principles

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f , ( x )  lim
h 0 h

cos( x  h)  cos x
 lim
h 0 h
 lim cos x cosh  sin x sinh  cos x
h 0 h
cos x  cosh  1  sin x sinh
 lim
h 0 h
cos x  cosh  1 sin x sinh 
 lim   
h  0 h h 
cos x  cosh  1
 lim  lim sin x sinh
h 0 h h 0 h
 cos x lim
 cosh  1  sin x lim sinh
h 0 h h 0 h
 cos x (0)  sin x(1)   sin x