by Angesom.

G 1
 Bench blasting
 Bench blasting is a common blast technique most often used for open pit
mines.
 By definition, bench blasting is blasting in a vertical or sub-vertical hole or a
row of holes towards a free vertical surface. More than one row of holes can
be blasted in the same round. A time delay in the detonation between the rows
creates new free surfaces for each row.
 what are the different parameters we use in bench blasting?

by Angesom.G 2
 Blasting design
Blasting design parameters
drilled burden (B) - is defined as the distance between the individual rows of holes. It is
also used to describe the distance from the front row of holes to the free face. When the
bench face is not vertical the burden on this front row of holes varies from crest to toe.
 spacing (S) - is the distance between holes in any given row.
 Subgrade (J) - Generally the holes are drilled below the desired final grade. This distance is
referred to as the subgrade drilling or simply the sub-drill
 Stemming (T) - A certain length of hole near the collar is left uncharged. This will be
referred to as the stemming length (T) whether or not it is left unfilled or filled with drill
cuttings/crushed rock.
 Bench height (H) – is the vertical height from the toe to the crest.
 drilled length (L) - is equal to the bench height plus the sub-drill. length of the explosive
column (L ) - is equal to the hole length minus the stemming. This column may be divided
into sections (decks) containing explosives of various strengths separated by lengths of
stemming materials. by Angesom.G 3
 Cont…

by Angesom.G 4
Specific gravity of some rocks

by Angesom.G 5
 Burden
 Burden distance is the most critical dimension in blast design.It is the
distance to the free face of the excavation.
 An empirical formula for approximating a
burden distance to be used on a first trial shot is

where
• B = burden, ft
• SGe = specific gravity of the explosive
• SGr = specific gravity of the rock
• De = diameter of the explosive, in.
by Angesom.G 6
 Cont
Example: A contractor plans to use dynamite that has specific gravity of 1.3 to open an
excavation in granite rock. The drilling equipment available will drill a 3-in blast hole.
Dynamite comes packaged in 2 3/4-in diameter sticks. What is the recommended burden
distance for the first trial shot? Granite SG= 2.6 to 2.9
• Answer Given: specific gravity of dynamite=1.3
• required B? Diameter of the explosive= 2 ¾ inch
Specific gravity granite= 2.6+2.9/2=2.8 from table
Solution B= (2SGe/SGr + 1.5)De
= (2*1.3/2.8 +1.5)2.75 = 6.7 ft
 The burden distance, B, based on relative bulk energy is given by
Where SGr = specific gravity of the rock
De = diameter of the explosive, in. Stv = relative bulk strength compared to ANFO

by Angesom.G 7
 Cont..
 The burden distance should also be adjusted because of the geological variations.
Rock is not homogeneous material as assumed by all formulas
 Therefore, it is always necessary to use correction factors for specific geological
conditions.
 Table below gives burden distance correction
factors for rock deposition and rock structure

by Angesom.G 8
 cont..
• The corrected burden distance can be computed from the following equation:
Bcorrected = B × Kd × Ks (3)
Where Kd = correction factor for rock deposition Ks = correction factor for rock
structure
• Example: A new quarry is being opened in a limestone formation having
horizontal bedding with numerous weak joints. From a borehole test drilling
program it is believed that the limestone is highly laminated with many weakly
cemented layers. Because of possible wet conditions, a cartridged slurry
(relative bulk density of 140) will be used as explosive. The 6.5-in blastholes
will be loaded with 5-in diameter cartridges.

by Angesom.G 9
 cont..
• For limestone, the specific gravity is between 2.4 and 2.9
• Average Specific Gravity = 2.4 + 2.9 /2=2.65

• Kd = 1 (horizontal bedding)
Ks = 1.3 (numerous weakly cemented layers
Bcorrected = B × Kd × Ks = 12.65(1)(1.3) = 16.4 ft

by Angesom.G 10
 STEMMING
 Stemming is the adding of an inert material, such as drill cuttings, on top of
the explosive in a blasthole for the purpose of confining the energy of the
explosive
 To function properly, the stemming material should have an average
diameter 0.05 times the diameter of the hole and should be angular.
 If the stemming distance is too great, there will be poor top breakage from
the explosion and backbreak will increase.
• When the stemming distance is inadequate, the explosion will escape
prematurely from the hole.
• Under normal conditions, properly designed burden and explosive, and good
stemming material, a stemming distance, T, of 0.7 times the burden distance,
B, will be satisfactory. T = 0.7 x B
by Angesom.G 11
 SUBDRILLING
• A shot will normally not break to the very bottom of the blasthole.
• To achieve a specified grade, one will need to drill below the desired floor
elevation. This portion of the blasthole below the desired final grade is
termed "subdrilling.“
• The subdrilling distance, J, required can be approximated by the following
formula: J = 0.3 x B
• Subdrilling represents the depth required for explosive placement, not a field
drilling depth.

by Angesom.G 12
 BLASTHOLE SIZE
• The size (diameter) of the blasthole will affect blast considerations concerning
fragmentation, air blast, flyrock, and ground vibration.
• The economics of drilling is the second consideration in determining blasthole size.
• Larger holes are usually more economical to drill but they introduce possible blast
problems.
• Once again, the second mechanism of rupture and the stiffness ratio (SR) need to be
considered.
• The stiffness ratio (SR) for blasting purposes is the bench height (L) divided by the
burden distance (B). SR = L/B=bench height/burden.
 SR affects several critical blasting considerations. Like:
 Fragmentation,
 Air blast,
 Flyrock,
Ground vibration.
by Angesom.G 13
 Stiffness Ratio’s Effect on Blasting Factors

Stiffness Ratio (RS) 1 2 3 4

Fragmentation Poor Fair Good Excellent
Air Blast Severe Fair Good Excellent
Flyrock Severe Fair Good Excellent
Ground Vibration Severe Fair Good Excellent

Stiffness Ratios above 4 yield no increase in benefit

 the parameters in both Eqs below was

the diameter of the explosive, De.
The diameter of the explosive is limited by
the diameter of the blasthole.

by Angesom.G 14
 Cont..
E.g: A contractor plans to use dynamite that has specific gravity of 1.3 to open
an excavation in granite rock. The drilling equipment available will drill a 5-in
blastholes. Dynamite comes packaged in 2.75-in and 4.5-diameter sticks. If
the specifications call for a 13-ft bench height and the extent of the
excavation perpendicular to the face is 100 ft, how many rows of blastholes
will be required for both the 2.75 and 4.5-diameter packages? Which package
of dynamite will result in lesser blasting problems?
solution
For the 2.75-in dia. Package
Specific Gravity of Granite = 2.6+2.9/2=2.8

• No of rows required is= (100/6.7)+1=15.93 ≈16 rows

by Angesom.G 15
 Cont..
• For the 4.5-in. dia, package
• No. of rows required =100/10.9 +1 = 10.17 ≈ 10 rows
• For the 2.75-in. dia. explosive package:
SR1 =L/ B1 = 13/6.7= 1.94
• For the 4.5-in. dia. explosive package:
SR2 =L/ B2 = 13/ 10.9 = 1.19
• Comparing the results of the stiffness ratios using Table above SR, the 2.75-
in. diameter explosive package has lesser blasting problem.

by Angesom.G 16
 Cont..
• Suppose that the rock blasting in the above Example should be
accomplished with a minimum stiffness ratio of 3, what will be the ideal
explosive diameter?
• SR=L/B B=L/SR = 13/3=4.33

• = ((2*1.3/2.8)+1.5)De=4.33
De = 1.785 in
• ideal explosive diameter = 1.785
• CHECK :
B= ((2*1.3/2.8)+1.5)*1.785= 3.603
SR=L/B = 13/3.603 = 3.6>3 OK.

by Angesom.G 17
 SPACING
• Proper spacing of blastholes is controlled by the initiation timing and the
stiffness ratio.
• When holes are spaced too close and fired instantaneously, venting of the
energy will occur with resulting air blast and flyrock.
• When the spacing is extended, there is a limit beyond which fragmentation
will become harsh.
 Before beginning a spacing analysis, two questions must be answered
concerning the shot:
• Will the charges be fired instantaneously or will delays be used?
• Is the stiffness ratio greater than 4?
 Note: The actual spacing utilized in the field should be within 15% plus or
minus the calculated value.
by Angesom.G 18
 SPACING..
 Spacing is controlled by initiation timing and stiffness ratio.
• Instantaneous initiation: SR greater than 1 but less than 4
• Instantaneous initiation: SR equal to or greater than 4
• Delayed initiation: SR greater than 1 but less than 4
• Delayed initiation: SR equal to or greater than 4
 An SR of less than 4 is considered a low bench and a high bench is a SR value of 4 or
greater. This means that there are four cases to be considered:
1,Instantaneous initiation. with the SR greater than I but less than 4.
• S = (L + 2B)/3
2 , Instantaneous initiation, with the SR equal to or greater than 4
S=2B
3, Delayed initiation, with the SR greater than 1 but less than 4.
S= (L+7B)/8
4, Delayed initiation, with the SR equal to or greater than 4.
S = 1.4B
by Angesom.G 19
 SPACING..
E.g: A project in granite rock will have an average bench height of 20 ft. An explosive having a
specific gravity of 1.2 has been proposed. The contractor’s equipment can easily drill 3-in
diameter holes. Assume the packaged diameter of the explosives will be 2.5 in. Delay
blasting techniques will be used. Develop a blast design for the project.
Solution: Specific Gravity of Granite is 2.6+2.9/2=2.75
B= (2SGe/SGr+1.5)De =(2*1.2/2.75 +1.5)*2.5=5.93ft
Hence, use 6 in for the burden distance B
SR=L/B=20/6=3.3 good (according to Table)
• The stemming depth (T ) = 0.7 × B = 0.7(6) = 4.2 ft Use 4 ft for the stemming depth, T.
• The subdrilling (J ) = 0.3× B = 0.3(6) = 1.8 ft Use 2 ft for subdrilling depth, J
• 1 < SR < 4 and delayed initiation ⇒S= (L+7B)/8 =(20+7*6)/8=7.75 ft
Range = 7.75 ± 0.15(7.75) : S = 6.6 to 8.9 ft
• As a first trial, use a 6-ft burden X 8-ft spacing pattern
by Angesom.G 20
Relationship used in blast design

by Angesom.G 21
 Decking
 Decking is the separation of the explosives column in a blast hole into two
or more parts with stemming between them.
 The thickness of the deck material should be 6 times the hole diameter for
dry holes and 12 times the hole diameter for wet holes.
 Decks are used for the following reasons:
To lower the powder factor
To reduce the amount of explosives detonated per delay
To reduce the amount of explosive in the hole.
To avoid loading a weak seam or to bypass a void in
the rock

by Angesom.G 22
 POWDER COLUMN AND POWDER FACTOR
• The amount of explosive required to fracture a cubic yard of rock is a measure of economy of blast
design.
POWDER COLUMN
• Powder column length is the blasthole depth minus the stemming depth.
Blasthole depth = bench height + subdrilling
• Powder column = blasthole depth – stemming
• The powder column length is the total hole length less stemming” that is
Powder Length = L + J − T
POWDER FACTOR
Definition:
“The powder factor is the ratio of the total weight (lb)of explosive in powder column length to the total
volume (cu yd) of rock fractured by one blasthole under the pattern area to a depth of bench depth
equal L” that is:
Powder Factor=Total Weight (lb) of Powder Column Length/Total Volume under Pattern Area (cu yd)
Means that The powder factor for a single borehole is calculated as:

by Angesom.G 23
 Powder factor
• Loading density = K x explosive density x (column diameter)2
• Where; loading density is measured in pounds
of explosive per foot of borehole,
K = 0.3405, explosive density is
Measured in grams per cubic centimeter,
and explosive column diameter is measured in inches.
 The total weight of explosive per hole is determined by multiplying the loading density
(calculated using the column-rise formula) by the length of the powder column.
Weight of explosive=loading density* powder column length
 The volume of material to be blasted is calculated by the rock-volume formula, as follows:
Volume = burden dimension x spacing dimension x (hole depth – subdrill length)/27
• Where; hole depth – subdrill length = bench height and
burden dimension, spacing dimension, and bench height all are measured in feet.
Technically, the equation “hole depth – subdrill length = bench height” is correct. However,
often, bench height alone equals hole depth, especially at surface coal mines, where subdrilling is
not a common practice (subdrilling is more prevalent at quarry operations).
by Angesom.G 24
 Powder factor
• To calculate the powder factor for a number of holes the following should be calculated;

We=Ve*density of explosive
Total weight of an explosive(Te)=We*no of holes(n)
 The weight of the rock that will be broken is calculated:
Total weight of the rock(Tr)=Vr*density = n*B*S*H*density of the rock
Powder factor = Te/Tr
• E.g 1; calculate the powder column length, the total weight of explosive used per blasthole, and the
powder factor.
where L = 20 ft, J = 4 ft, and T = 4 ft, Pattern = 6 X 8
Specific Gravity of Explosive = 1.2, Explosive diameter = 2.5
• From Table: Loading Density = 2.55 lb per ft
Solution
• Powder Column Length = (L + J ) − T = 20 + 2 − 4 = 18 ft
• The Total Weight of Explosive per Column = 18× 2.55 = 45.9 lb
Powder Factor=total weight of the explosive per hole/ Volume of Rock Fractured under Pattern Area
=45.9/(6*8*20)/27=1.29 by Angesom.G 25
 Cont..
E.g2; Rock = syenite porphyry (SG=2.6), Explosive = ANFO (ρ=0.8, S ANFO =1)
Bench Height (H)=15m, Hole Diameter (D)=381mm (15”)
Staggered drilling pattern, vertical holes
1 blast = 4 rows of holes each containing 6 holes
Solution; from the relationship, we see:
• B=Kb*D, where K˜25 (assumed), therefore B=(25)(0.381)=9.5 m
• S=Ks*B, where KS=1.15 (staggered), therefore S=(1.15)(9.5)=11 m
• J=kJ*B, where KJ=0.3, therefore J=(0.3)(9.5)=3 m
• T=KTB= where KT=0.7, therefore T=(0.7)(9.5)=6.5 m
• L=H+J, hole length therefore equals to 15+3=18 m
 To calculate the powder factor, the volume and weight of the explosive used is calculated:
The weight of the rock that will be broken is
calculated:

by Angesom.G 26
 Drilling pattern
 there are three mainly drilling patterns;
A square pattern has drilled spacing's that are equal to drilled burdens.
 A rectangular pattern has drilled spacing's that are larger than drilled burdens.
 In a staggered pattern, the drilled spacing's of each row are offset such that the
holes in one row are positioned in the middle of the spacing's of the holes in the
preceding row. In addition, the drilled spacing's are larger than the drilled
burdens.

square rectangular staggered

• A staggered pattern is used for row firing, where the holes in one row are fired
before the holes in the row immediately behind them. The square and rectangular
patterns are used for firing “V” (chevron) or echelon rounds.
by Angesom.G 27
 Firing pattern
• A “V”-pattern, or chevron, firing round is appropriate for most square or
rectangular blast patterns; it is not as practical for staggered-pattern loading.
• Under any square or rectangular blast scenario that uses a “V”-pattern, actual
burden and spacing (both of them dependent upon the timing of the shot) will
be different from drilled, or apparent, burden and spacing.
• When a “V”pattern firing round is used under a square-pattern loading
scenario, the rock movement is 45 degrees to the open face. “V”-pattern
firing rounds are quite common at surface coal mines that use larger diameter
blastholes.

by Angesom.G 28
 Cont…
 Echelon patterns are normally designed to take advantage of two free faces; they are
typically used in large overburden shots (that is, in blastholes with diameters greater than 8
inches), casting operations, and interburden shooting.
 row by row blasting

by Angesom.G 29
 Delay
 There are two main types of delay in a blast pattern. These are
 Hole-to-hole (also known as “inter-hole”) delay
 Row-to-row (or “inter-row”) delay.
Hole to hole delay
 The optimum hole-to-hole delay is 3 ms/m of burden.
 Large delay intervals between holes result in reduced fragmentation and
excessive throw.
Row to row delay
 In row-to-row delay to provide good movement and fragmentation a
minimum of 3 ms/m of burden is used.
As the number of rows increase to more than three, this value should be
increased to provide good movement and to reduce back break.
by Angesom.G 30
 Secondary blasting
 Secondary breaking is the process of breaking the over sized boulders (lumps) which
result during the primary blasting operations.
 Over sized boulders when treated with the aid of explosives, the process is known as
secondary blasting.
1, Plaster shooting(mudcapping)
 In this process the boulder is shot by putting explosive over it and plastering it with a mud
cap.
 the process gives higher powder factor comparing the pop shooting
 its application can be justified in the stoping areas where less number of draw points are
available,
2, Pop shooting(blockholing)
 The pop shooting ensures effective breakage of the boulder due to explosive concen-
tration in the small diameter shot holes drilled in the boulder to be dealt with.
 In this technique in comparison to plaster shooting, better shattering effect with low
powder factor can be achieved but large number of draw points should be available to
perform continuous drilling and blasting operations.
by Angesom.G 31
 Cast blasting
 When overburden is removed from a coal or mineral deposit it is generally cast to a
waste dump by draglines, or removed by loaders and trucks.
 Cast blasting is the controlled placement of overburden into the previously mined cut
resulting in a reduced volume or overburden material for the dragline to handle.
 Cast blasting often results in improved fragmentation of the overburden material,
causing improved productivity for the dragline or loader.
 This type of blasting is sometimes called throw or controlled trajectory blasting.

by Angesom.G 32
 Environmental Issues
 Techniques involving explosives differ from other available systems in that
the energy applied is released in a matter of milliseconds.
If the energy release process is not adequately controlled, there is a
potential danger of environmental disturbance.
 Environmental disturbance includes the effects of
airblast,
flyrock,
ground vibration.
Changes in the natural profile of the ground,
 dust,
 fumes,
by Angesom.G 33
 1, Air blast
 An airblast is an airborne shock wave that results from the detonation of
explosive.
 Severity of an airblast is dependent on explosive charge, distance and especially
confinement
 Air overpressure due to an explosive charge (for a given amount) increases rapidly
as the confinement decreases.
 Severe airblast is caused either by inaccurate charging, with the consequent
wastage of explosive energy in the air, or by the firing of exposed detonating cord
in a sensitive area.
 The most damaging cases of airblast are caused by unconfined surface charges.
 The resulting airblast overpressure may be estimated from the following formula:
P=k[R/ Q0.33]-1.2
Where ; where p = pressure (kPa), Q = explosive charge (kg)
R = distance from charge (m).
K=state of confinement{ for unconfined k=185 for confined k=3.3}
by Angesom.G 34
 Airblast Effect on Structures

Risk of damage to eardrum 30

Human discomfort 120db

by Angesom.G 35
 2, Flyrock
 Fly-rock is the term for undesirable projectiles of blasted material.
 The major causes of fly-rock in mining are shown in Figure below;
 When the specific charge(q) is q ≤ 0.2 kg/m3
there is no throw. For other values of q the
maximum throw is expressed by;
L=143 d (q-0.2)
where d = hole diameter (inches),
q = specific charge (kg/m3),
L = maximum throw (m).
 Some empirical and computer simulation have examined the maximum
throw(Lmax) and boulder size as a function of hole diameter.
where; d = hole diameter (inches),
= boulder diameter (m). by Angesom.G 36
 3, Ground vibration
 When an explosive charge is detonated in a borehole, a pressure wave will be
generated in the earth surrounding the hole. As the pressure wave travels away
from the borehole it forms a seismic or vibration wave by displacing the particles
around it. This excursion or oscillation of the individual particles is measured to
determine the magnitude of the blasting vibration.
 The peak particle velocity (ppv) of ground motion can be related to distance and
instantaneous explosive charge by the following equation:
Ppv=k (R/Q0.5)-p
Where ; R = distance in meters, Q = explosive charge in kg, k value [
K = site factor constant, and P = site exponent constant.
Typically K factor;
For free face hard or highly structured rock k= 500
For free face average rock k= 1140
Heavily confined k= 5000
by Angesom.G 37
 Cont..
The ratio (R/Q0.5) is commonly known as scaled distance (SD).
 SD is a useful parameter for comparing one set of vibration results to
others. Obviously, as the value of SD increases, the magnitude of ppv
decreases.
 Recommended maximum peak particle velocities

for high rise, hospital, long floor spans,dams or

historic buildings where no specified limit exists 5mm/s
by Angesom.G 38
by Angesom.G 39
IF ANY ?
by Angesom.G 40