Chapter 9

Chapter 9
Leadership
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 9 / Slide 1

Learning Objectives
LO9.1 Define leadership and discuss the role of

strategic and formal leadership in
organizations.
LO9.2 Explain and critically evaluate the trait
theory of leadership.
LO9.3 Compare and contrast the following
leadership behaviours and their
consequences: consideration, initiating
structure, leader reward, and leader
punishment.

Learning Objectives
LO9.4 Describe and evaluate the situational

theories of leadership: contingency theory
and path-goal theory.
LO9.5 Discuss participative leadership and how
and when to use participative leadership
using the Vroom and Jago model.
LO9.6 Describe and evaluate leader-member-
exchange (LMX) theory and transactional
and transformational leadership and
their consequences

Learning Objectives
LO9.7 Discuss the new and emerging theories of

leadership including empowering
leadership, ethical leadership, authentic
leadership, and servant leadership.
LO9.8 Describe gender differences in leadership
and explain why women are
underrepresented in leadership roles in
organizations.

Learning Objectives
LO9.9 Discuss the GLOBE project and explain

the role that culture plays in
leadership effectiveness.
LO9.10 Discuss global leadership and describe
the characteristics of global leaders.

What Is Leadership?
• The influence that particular individuals exert

on the goal achievement of others in an
organizational context.
• Effective leadership exerts influence in a way
that achieves organizational goals by enhancing
the productivity, innovation, satisfaction, and
commitment of the workforce.

What Is Leadership? (continued)
• Leadership is about motivating people and

gaining their commitment.
• Leadership has a strong effect on an
organization’s strategy, success, and very
survival.

Strategic Leadership
• Leadership that involves the ability to

anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think
strategically, and work with others to initiate
changes that will create a viable future for the
organization.
• Strategic leaders are open and honest in their
interactions with the organization’s
stakeholders, and they focus on the future.

Formal Leadership
• Individuals with titles such as manager,

executive, supervisor, and department head
occupy formal or assigned leadership roles.
• They are expected to influence others, and they
are given specific authority to direct
employees.
• Some managers and supervisors fail to exert any
influence on others.
• Leadership involves going beyond formal role
requirements to influence others.

Informal Leadership
• Individuals might also emerge to occupy

informal leadership roles.
• They do not have formal authority.
• They must rely on being well liked or being
perceived as highly skilled to exert influence.

Are Leaders Born? The Trait
Theory of Leadership
• Leadership depends on the personal qualities or
traits of the leader.
• Based on the assumption that those who
become leaders and do a good job of it possess
a special set of traits that distinguish them from
the masses of followers.

Research on Leadership Traits
• The search for leadership traits began during
World War I.
• Traits are individual characteristics such as
physical attributes, intellectual ability, and
personality.
• Many traits are not associated with whether
people become leaders or how effective they
are as leaders.
• However, some traits are associated with
leadership.

Traits Associated with Leadership
Effectiveness

• All five of the “Big Five” dimensions of

personality are related to leadership emergence
and success.
• Of the “Big Five,” extraversion and
conscientiousness are the most consistent
predictors of leadership effectiveness.
• Intelligence is related to leadership
effectiveness, however, the relationship is
lower than previously thought.

(continued)
• The relationship between traits and leadership
effectiveness is stronger for affective and
relational measures of effectiveness than for
performance-related measures.
• The trait approach is not the best means of
understanding and improving leadership.

Limitations of the Trait Approach
• It is difficult to determine whether traits make

the leader or whether the opportunity for
leadership produces the traits.
• Does not tell us what leaders do to influence
others successfully.
• It can lead to bias and discrimination when
evaluating a leader’s effectiveness and when
making decisions about promoting people to
leadership positions.

Limitations of the Trait Approach
(continued)
• Leadership categorization theory: People are
more likely to view somebody as a leader and to
evaluate them as a more effective leader when
they possess prototypical characteristics of
leadership.
• The most crucial problem is that it does not
take into account the situation in which
leadership occurs.

Limitations of the Trait
Approach: Summary
• Traits alone are not sufficient for successful
leadership.
• Traits are only a precondition for certain
actions that a leader must take in order to be
successful.
• Leader behaviours have a greater impact on
leadership effectiveness than leader traits.

The Behaviour of Leaders
• What are the crucial behaviours leaders engage
in, and how do these behaviours influence
employee performance and satisfaction?
• Is there a particular leadership style that is
more effective than other styles?

Ohio State University Leadership
Study
• The most involved, systematic study of
leadership took place at Ohio State University in
the 1940s.
• Employees described their superiors along a
number of behavioural dimensions.
• The results revealed two basic kinds of
behaviour:
– Consideration
– Initiating structure

Consideration
• The extent to which a leader is approachable

and shows personal concern and respect for
employees.
• The considerate leader is seen as friendly and
egalitarian, expresses appreciation and support,
and is protective of group welfare.

Initiating Structure
• The degree to which a leader concentrates on

group goal attainment.
• The structuring leader clearly defines and
organizes his or her role and the roles of
followers, stresses standard procedures,
schedules the work to be done, and assigns
employees to particular tasks.

The Consequences of
Consideration and Structure
• Consideration and initiating structure both
contribute positively to employees’ motivation,
job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness.
• Consideration is more strongly related to
follower satisfaction, motivation, and leader
effectiveness.

The Consequences of
Consideration and Structure
(continued)
• Initiating structure is slightly more strongly
related to leader job performance and group
performance.
• The relative importance of consideration and
initiating structure varies according to the
nature of the leadership situation.

The Consequences of
Consideration and Structure: The
Nature of the Situation
• The effects of consideration and initiating
structure depend on characteristics of the task,
the employee, and the setting in which work is
performed.

Leader Reward and Punishment
Behaviours
• Leader reward behaviour provides employees

with compliments, tangible benefits, and
deserved special treatment.
• When such rewards are made contingent on
performance, employees should perform at a
high level and experience job satisfaction.

Behaviours (continued)
• Leader punishment behaviour involves the use

of reprimands or unfavourable task assignments
and the active withholding of raises,
promotions, and other rewards.
• When punishment is perceived as random and
not contingent on employee behaviour,
employees react negatively with great
dissatisfaction.

Behaviours: Research
• Contingent leader reward and punishment

behaviour is positively related to employees’
perceptions, attitudes, and behaviour.
• Non-contingent punishment behaviour is related
to unfavourable outcomes.
• Relationships are much stronger when rewards
and punishment are made contingent on
employee behaviour.

Behaviours: Research (continued)
• The manner in which leaders administer

rewards and punishment is a critical
determinant of their effectiveness.
• Leader reward and punishment behaviours are
related to employee attitudes and behaviours
because they lead to more positive perceptions
of justice and lower role ambiguity.

Situational Theories of
Leadership
• The situation refers to the setting in which

influence attempts occur.
• The basic premise of situational theories of
leadership is that the effectiveness of a
leadership style is contingent on the setting.

Leadership (continued)
• The setting includes the characteristics of the
employees, the nature of the task they are
performing, and characteristics of the
organization.

Leadership (continued)
• Two situational theories of leadership that are
among the best known and most studied:
– Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
– House’s Path-Goal Theory

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
• The association between leadership orientation

and group effectiveness is contingent on
(depends on) the extent to which the situation
is favourable for exerting influence.
• Some situations are more favourable than
others, and these situations require different
orientations on the part of the leader.

Leadership Orientation
• Leadership orientation is measured by having a

leader describe their Least Preferred Co-Worker
(LPC).
• Least Preferred Co-Worker is a current or past
co-worker with whom a leader has had a
difficult time accomplishing a task.

(continued)
• The leader who describes the LPC relatively
favourably (a high LPC score) is considered to
be relationship oriented.
• The leader who describes the LPC unfavourably
(a low LPC score) is considered to be task
oriented.

(continued)
• Fiedler has argued that the LPC score reveals a

personality trait that reflects the leader’s
motivational structure.
• The LPC score is not a measure of consideration
or initiating structure which are observed
behaviours.
• The LPC score is an attitude of the leader
toward work relationships.

Situational Favourableness
• Situational favourableness is the “contingency”

part of contingency theory.
• It specifies when a particular LPC orientation
should contribute most to group effectiveness.

(continued)
• Factors that affect situational favourableness,
in order of importance, are the following:
– Leader-member relations
– Task structure
– Position power

(continued)
• The situation is most favourable for leadership

when:
– Leader-member relations are good
– The task is structured
– The leader has strong position power

(continued)
• The situation is least favourable for leadership

when:
– Leader-member relations are poor
– The task is unstructured
– The leader has weak position power

Predictions of Leader
Effectiveness from Fiedler’s
Contingency Theory of Leadership

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
(continued)
• The model indicates that a task orientation
(low LPC) is most effective when the leadership
situation is very favourable or when it is very
unfavourable.
• A relationship orientation (high LPC) is most
effective in conditions of medium favourability.

Contingency Theory: Research
Evidence
• Contingency theory has been the subject of
much debate.
• The exact meaning of the LPC score is not
clear.
• A major source of the many inconsistent
findings is the small sample sizes used in many
studies.
• Recent reviews have concluded that there is
reasonable support for contingency theory.

House’s Path-Goal Theory
• Robert House’s theory is concerned with the

situations under which various leader
behaviours are most effective.
• Path-Goal Theory is concerned with leader
behaviours.
• Why did House choose the name “path-goal” for
his theory?

The Theory
• The most important activities of leaders are

those that clarify the paths to various goals of
interest to employees.
• The opportunity to achieve such goals should
promote job satisfaction, leader acceptance,
and high effort.
• The effective leader forms a connection
between employee goals and organizational
goals.

The Theory (continued)
• To achieve job satisfaction and leader

acceptance, leader behaviour must be
perceived as immediately satisfying or as
leading to future satisfaction.
• To promote employee effort, leaders must
make rewards dependent on performance and
ensure that employees have a clear picture of
how they can achieve these rewards.

Leader Behaviour
• Path-Goal Theory is concerned with four

specific kinds of leader behaviour:
– Directive behaviour
– Supportive behaviour
– Participative behaviour
– Achievement-oriented behaviour

Directive Behaviour
• Directive leaders schedule work, maintain

performance standards, and let employees
know what is expected of them.
• It is identical to initiating structure.

Supportive Behaviour
• Supportive leaders are friendly, approachable,

and concerned with pleasant interpersonal
relationships.
• It is identical to consideration.

Participative Behaviour
• Participative leaders consult with employees

about work-related matters and consider their
opinions.

Achievement-Oriented Behaviour
• Achievement-oriented leaders encourage

employees to exert high effort and strive for a
high level of goal accomplishment.
• They express confidence that employees can
reach these goals.

Situational Factors
• The effectiveness of each set of behaviours

depends on the situation that the leader
encounters.
• Path-Goal Theory is concerned with two primary
classes of situational factors:
– Employee characteristics
– Environmental factors

Situational Factors (continued)
• The impact of leader behaviour on employee

satisfaction, effort, and acceptance of the
leader depends on the nature of the employees
and the work environment.

The Path-Goal Theory of
Leadership

Employee Characteristics
• Different types of employees need or prefer

different forms of leadership:
– High need achievers should work well under
achievement-oriented leadership.
– Employees who prefer to be told what to do
respond best to directive leadership.
– When employees have low task abilities,
they will appreciate directive leadership.

Environmental Factors
• The effectiveness of leadership behaviour

depends on the particular work environment:
– When tasks are clear and routine, directive
leadership is redundant and unnecessary and
participative leadership is not useful.
– When tasks are challenging but ambiguous,
directive and participative leadership is
effective.
– When a job is frustrating or dissatisfying,
supportive leadership is most effective.

Situational Factors (continued)
• Leaders might have to tailor their behaviour to

the needs, abilities, and personalities of
individual employees.
• Effective leaders should take advantage of the
motivating and satisfying aspects of jobs while
offsetting or compensating for those job
aspects that demotivate or dissatisfy.

Path-Goal Theory: Research
Evidence
• There is substantial evidence that supportive or
considerate leader behaviour is most beneficial
in supervising routine, frustrating, or
dissatisfying jobs.
• There is some evidence that directive or
structuring leader behaviour is most effective
on ambiguous, less-structured jobs.

Path-Goal Theory: Research
Evidence (continued)
• The theory works better in predicting
employees’ job satisfaction and acceptance of
the leader than in predicting job performance.

Participative Leadership:
Involving Employees in Decisions
• Participative leadership is one of the leader

behaviours in path-goal theory.
• It is an important leadership style and deserves
further attention.

What is Participative Leadership?
• Participative leadership means involving

employees in making work-related decisions.
• Leaders can vary in the extent to which they
involve employees in decision making.
• Minimally, participation involves obtaining
employee opinions before making a decision.
• Maximally, it allows employees to make their
own decisions within agreed-on limits.

Employee Participation in
Decision Making

What is Participative Leadership?
(continued)
• Participation can involve individual employees
or the entire group of employees that reports to
the leader.
• The choice of an individual or group
participation strategy should be tailored to
specific situations.

Potential Advantages of
Participative Leadership
• What are the potential advantages of

participation as a leadership technique?
– Motivation
– Quality
– Acceptance

Motivation
• Participation can increase the motivation of
employees.
• Participation can permit employees to
contribute to the establishment of work goals
and how to accomplish them.
• Participation can increase intrinsic motivation
by enriching jobs.

Quality
• Participation can enhance the quality of

decisions.
• “Two heads are better than one.”
• Participation can also enhance quality because
it empowers employees to take direct action
and solve problems.

Acceptance
• Participation can increase employees’

acceptance of decisions.
• This is especially important when issues of
fairness are involved.

Potential Problems of
Participative Leadership
• What are the potential disadvantages of

participation as a leadership technique?
– Time and energy
– Loss of power
– Lack of receptivity or knowledge

Time and Energy
• Participation requires specific behaviours on the

part of the leader that use time and energy.

Loss of Power
• Some leaders feel that a participative style will

reduce their power and influence.
• Sometimes leaders respond by asking employees
to make trivial decisions.

Lack of Receptivity or Knowledge
• Employees might not be receptive to
participation when the leader is not trusted or
when a poor labour climate exists.
• Employees might lack the knowledge to
contribute effectively to decisions and might
not be aware of external constraints on their
decisions.

Vroom and Jago’s Situational
Model of Participation
• Victor Vroom and Arthur Jago developed a

model that attempts to specify in a practical
manner when leaders should use participation
and to what extent they should use it.
• They began with the recognition that there are
various degrees of participation that a leader
can exhibit.

(continued)
• For issues involving the entire work group, a
range of decision making strategies is plausible:
– A stands for autocratic
– C for consultative
– G for group

Autocratic Strategies
• AI: You solve the problem or make the decision

yourself.
• AII: You obtain the necessary information from
your employees, then decide the solution to the
problem yourself.

Consultative Strategies
• CI: You share the problem with the relevant

employees individually, getting their ideas and
suggestions, then you make the decision.
• CII: You share the problem with your employees
as a group, obtaining their collective ideas and
suggestions, then you make the decision.

Group Strategy
• GII: You share the problem with your employees

as a group and together you generate and
evaluate alternatives and attempt to reach
agreement (consensus) on a solution.
• Which of these strategies is most effective?

(continued)
• The most effective strategy depends on the
situation or problem at hand.
• The leader’s goal should be to make high-
quality decisions to which employees will be
adequately committed without undue delay.
• To do this, the leader must consider questions
in a decision tree.

(continued)
• The questions consider decision quality,
subordinate commitment, and problem
structure.
• The questions are oriented toward preserving
either decision quality or commitment to the
decision.
• By tracing a problem through the decision tree,
the leader encounters the prescribed degree of
participation for that problem.

Vroom and Jago Decision Tree
Questions
• QR: How important is the technical quality of
this decision? (quality requirement)
• CR: How important is subordinate commitment
to the decision? (commitment requirement)
• LI: Do you have sufficient information to make a
high-quality decision?
• ST: Is the problem well-structured?

Questions (continued)
• CP: If you were to make the decision by

yourself, is it reasonably certain that your
subordinates would be committed to the
decision?
• GC: Do subordinates share the organizational
goals to be attained in solving the problem?

Questions (continued)
• CO: Is conflict among subordinates over
preferred solutions likely?
• SI: Do subordinates have sufficient information
to make a high-quality decision?

(continued)
• By tracing the problem through the decision
tree, the leader encounters the prescribed
degree of participation for that problem.
• The tree shows the fastest approach possible
that still maintains decision quality and
commitment.
• If a leader is willing to sacrifice some speed, a
more participative approach could stimulate
employee development.

The Vroom and Jago Decision
Tree for Participative Leadership

Vroom and Jago Model: Research
Evidence
• The model has substantial research support.
• Following the model’s prescriptions is more
likely to lead to successful managerial decisions
than unsuccessful decisions.
• But does participative leadership result in
beneficial outcomes?

Research Evidence
• There is substantial evidence that employees
who have the opportunity to participate in
work-related decisions report more job
satisfaction, higher task performance, and
organizational citizenship behaviour toward the
organization than those who do not.
• These results are partly due to a positive effect
on employee empowerment and trust in one’s
supervisor.

Research Evidence (continued)
• Most workers seem to prefer a participative
work environment.
• However, for participation to be translated into
higher productivity, certain facilitating
conditions must exist.
• When will participation work best?

Conditions for Participation
• Participation should work best when:

– Employees feel favourably toward it.
– Employees are intelligent and knowledgeable
about the issue at hand.
– When the task is complex enough to make
participation useful.
• These conditions are incorporated into the
Vroom and Jago model.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
Theory
• A theory of leadership that focuses on the

relationship that develops between a leader and
an employee.
• It is a social exchange relationship-based
approach to leadership.

Theory (continued)
• Effective leadership processes result when

leaders and employees develop and maintain
high-quality social exchange relationships.
• The basis for the effects of LMX is social
exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity.

Social Exchange Theory
• Individuals who are treated favourably by

others feel obliged to reciprocate by responding
positively and returning that favourable
treatment in some manner.
• Employees in a high-quality relationship with
their supervisor will reciprocate with extra
effort and higher commitment and
performance.

Theory (continued)
• High LMX involves a high degree of mutual

influence and obligation as well as trust,
loyalty, open communication, and respect
between a leader and an employee.
• In high-quality relationships, employees
perform tasks beyond their job descriptions.

Theory (continued)
• Low LMX is characterized by low trust, respect,

obligation, and mutual support.
• In low-quality relationships, the leader provides
less attention and latitude to employees.
• Employees do only what their job descriptions
and formal role requirements demand.

Theory: Research Evidence
• Employees with higher quality LMX have higher
self-efficacy, more positive work attitudes, and
higher OCB and job performance.
• Higher-quality LMX relationships result in
positive outcomes for leaders, employees, work
units, and organizations.

Transactional Leadership
• Transactional leadership is leadership that is
based on a straightforward exchange
relationship between a leader and followers.
• Transactional leadership behaviour involves:
– Contingent reward behaviour (leader reward
behaviour)
– Management by exception

Management By Exception
• Leadership that involves the leader taking

corrective action on the basis of the results of
leader-follower transactions.
• The leader monitors follower behaviour,
anticipates problems, and takes corrective
actions before the behaviour creates serious
problems.

Transformational Leadership
• Transformational leadership is leadership that

provides followers with a new vision that instills
true commitment.
• Transformational leaders change the beliefs and
attitudes of followers to correspond with a new
vision and motivates them to achieve
performance beyond expectations.

Transformational Leaders
• Popular examples of transformational leaders:

Herb Kelleher, Michael Eisner, Steven Jobs, and
Carly Fiorina.
• Transformational leaders are usually good at
the transactional aspects of clarifying the paths
to goals and rewarding good performance.
• What are the behaviours of these
transformational leaders who encourage
considerable effort and dedication on the part
of followers?

Behaviours of Transformational
Leadership
• There are four key dimensions of
transformational leader behavour:
– Intellectual stimulation
– Individualized consideration
– Inspirational motivation
– Charisma

Intellectual Stimulation
• People are stimulated to think about problems,

issues, and strategies in new ways.
• This contributes to the “new vision” aspect of
transformational leadership.
• The leader challenges assumptions, takes risks,
and solicits followers’ ideas.
• It often involves creativity and novelty.

Individualized Consideration
• This involves treating employees as distinct

individuals, indicating concern for their needs
and personal development, and serving as a
mentor or coach when appropriate.
• The emphasis is a one-on-one attempt to meet
the concerns and needs of the individual in
question in the context of the overall goal or
mission.

Inspirational Motivation
• This involves the communication of visions that

are appealing and inspiring to followers.
• Leaders with inspirational motivation have a
strong vision for the future based on values and
ideals.
• They stimulate enthusiasm, challenge followers
with high standards, communicate optimism
about future goal attainment, and provide
meaning for the task at hand.
• They inspire followers using symbolic actions
and persuasion.

Charisma
• The ability to command strong loyalty and
devotion from followers and thus have the
potential for strong influence among them.
• This is the most important aspect of
• Charisma provides the emotional aspect of
• The emergence of charisma is a complex
function of traits, behaviours, and being in the
right place at the right time.

Transformational Leadership:
Research Evidence
• Transformational leadership is strongly related

to follower motivation and satisfaction, leader
performance, leader effectiveness, and
individual, group, and organization
performance.
• Charismatic leadership has also been found to
be strongly related to follower satisfaction and

• Compared to other forms of leader behaviour,
transformational leadership has been found to
be the most consistent predictor of effective
leadership.
• Some evidence that CEO transformational
leadership is positively related to firm
performance, especially when the environment
is uncertain, and to levels of organizational
commitment.

• Transformational leadership is especially

effective during times of change and for
obtaining employees’ commitment to change.
• Overall, the best leaders are both
transformational and transactional.

New and Emerging Theories of
Leadership
• Leadership research has begun to focus on the
broader context of the leadership process.
• This has led to the emergence of new forms of
leadership behaviours and theories:
– Empowering leadership
– Ethical leadership
– Authentic leadership
– Servant leadership

Empowering Leadership
• Empowering leadership involves implementing

conditions that enable power to be shared with
employees.
• Empowering leaders provide participation and
autonomy in decision making.
• Employees experience a state of psychological
empowerment that consists of feelings of
meaning, competence, self-determination, and
impact.

Empowering Leadership
(continued)
• Empowering leadership provides employees
with a greater feeling of control over their work
and a sense that they can make a difference in
their organization’s effectiveness.
• Empowering leadership has been found to be
positively related to job performance and
creativity-relevant behaviours.

Ethical Leadership
• Ethical leadership involves the demonstration

of normatively appropriate conduct through
personal actions and interpersonal
relationships, and the promotion of such
conduct to followers through two-way
communication, reinforcement, and decision-
making.
• What do ethical leaders do?

Ethical Leader Behaviours
• They model what is deemed to be normatively

appropriate behaviour (e.g., honesty).
• They make ethics salient in the workplace.
• They set ethical standards.
• They reward ethical behaviour.
• They discipline those who don’t follow ethical
standards and punish unethical behaviour.

Ethical Leader Behaviours
(continued)
• Ethical leaders consider the ethical
consequences of their decisions.
• They care about people and the broader society
and seek to do the right thing personally and
professionally.

Ethical Leadership (continued)
• Ethical leadership is positively related to more

favourable evaluations of leaders, more positive
job attitudes, and greater performance.
• It is negatively related to job strains, turnover
intentions, and counterproductive work
behaviours.
• The relationship between ethical leadership and
positive work outcomes is due to trust in the
leader.

Ethical Leadership (continued)
• The ethical behaviour of leaders has a

significant influence on the ethical culture of an
organization.
• The ethical leadership of immediate supervisors
is likely to have the greatest effect on
employees.

Authentic Leadership
• Authentic leadership is a positive form of

leadership that involves being true to oneself.
• Authentic leaders know and act upon their true
values, beliefs, and strengths, and they help
others do the same.
• Their conduct and behaviour is guided by their
internal values.

Authentic Leadership (continued)
• Authentic leadership consists of four related but

distinct behaviours:
– Self-awareness
– Relational transparency
– Balanced processing
– Internalized moral perspective

Self-Awareness
• An accurate understanding of one’s strengths

and weaknesses and an awareness of one’s
impact on others.

Relational Transparency
• The presenting of one’s true or authentic self to

others and the open sharing of information and
expressions of one’s true thoughts and feelings.

Balanced Processing
• The objective analysis of all relevant

information before making a decision and
consideration of views that challenge one’s own
position.

Internalized Moral Perspective
• They have internal moral standards and values

that guide their behaviour and decision making.

• Followers of authentic leaders have higher:

– Organizational commitment
– Job satisfaction
– Satisfaction with their supervisor
– Organizational citizenship behaviour
– Work engagement
– Ethical and pro-social behaviours

• Authentic leadership has been found to be

positively related to the psychological capital of
work groups and trust among group members
which led to higher group citizenship behaviours
and performance.
• Team leader authenticity has also been found
to be related to team members’ authenticity
which was related to higher quality teamwork
behaviour and team productivity.

Servant Leadership
• Servant leadership is a form of leadership that

involves going beyond one’s own self-interests
and having a genuine concern to serve others
and a motivation to lead.
• The focus of servant leadership is a concern for
the needs of followers and their growth and
development.
• A servant leader is somebody who wants to
serve first and lead second.

Characteristics of Servant
Leaders
• There are six characteristics of servant leaders:
– Empowering and developing people
– Humility
– Authenticity
– Interpersonal acceptance
– Providing direction
– Stewardship

Servant Leadership (continued)
• Servant leadership is positively related to trust

in management and perceptions of
organizational justice as well as more positive
work attitudes and higher OCBs.
• Employees in departments that had servant
leaders were found to have higher perceptions
of being treated fairly and were more likely to
exhibit helping behaviours.

Gender and Leadership
• Do men and women adopt different leadership

styles?

(continued)
• Women have a tendency to be more

participative or democratic than men.
• Women leaders have been found to be more
transformational than men leaders, and to also
engage in more of the contingent reward
behaviours of transactional leadership.

(continued)
• Men leaders engaged in more management by
exception and laissez-faire leadership which is
a passive form of leadership that involves
avoidance or absence of leadership and is
negatively related to leader effectiveness.
• These findings attest to the ability of women to
be highly effective leaders.
• So do men and women differ in leadership
effectiveness?

(continued)
• A review of 95 studies found that there are
some differences but only in certain situations
such as whether an organization is male or
female dominated.
• When various factors are taken into account
men and women do not differ in perceived

Women and Leadership
• Women hold very few top leadership positions

in Canadian organizations.
• Women also hold a minority of senior leadership
positions in the United States and Europe.
• How can we explain this obvious gender bias in
leadership?

(continued)
• For decades the explanation has been the glass
ceiling metaphor – the invisible barrier that
prevents women from advancing to senior
leadership positions in organizations.

(continued)
• According to Alice Eagly and Linda Carli, a more
accurate metaphor is a labyrinth because of the
many twists, turns, detours, and dead ends that
women encounter along their way up the
organizational hierarchy.
• It is the sum of all of the barriers women face
rather than one particular barrier.
• It can also be explained by role congruity theory
(RCT).

Role Congruity Theory
• Prejudice against female leaders is the result of

an incongruity between the perceived
characteristics of women and the perceived
requirements of leadership roles.
• Leaders are perceived as similar to men and not
very similar to women.
• Men are perceived as having agentic traits while
women are perceived as having communal
traits.

Agentic and Communal Traits
• Men are perceived as having agentic traits,

which convey assertion and control and are
generally associated with effective leadership.
• Women are perceived as having communal
traits, which convey a concern for the
compassionate treatment of others.
• What can organizations do to increase the
number of women in senior leadership
positions?

(continued)
• A combination of programs and interventions is
required such as reducing the subjectivity of
performance evaluations and establishing family
friendly human resource practices.

The Advancement of Women in
Organizations

Culture and Leadership
• Are various leadership styles equally effective

across cultures?

Culture and Leadership
(continued)
• The Global Leadership and Organizational
Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) research
project is the most extensive and ambitious
study ever undertaken on global leadership.

The GLOBE Project
• Identified nine cultural dimensions that

distinguish one society from another.
• Based on these cultural dimensions, they
identified 10 culture clusters.
• The culture clusters differ with respect to how
they score on the nine cultural dimensions.

Cultural Dimensions from the
GLOBE Project
• Performance Orientation
• Assertiveness
• Future Orientation
• Humane Orientation
• Institutional Collectivism
• In-Group Collectivism
• Gender Egalitarianism
• Power Distance
• Uncertainty Avoidance

The GLOBE Project (continued)
• GLOBE wanted to know if the same attributes

that lead to successful leadership in one
country lead to success in other countries?
• Citizens in each nation have implicit
assumptions regarding requisite leadership
qualities, something known as implicit
leadership theory.

Implicit Leadership Theory
• A theory that states that individuals hold a set

of beliefs about the kinds of attributes,
personality characteristics, skills, and
behaviours that contribute to or impede
outstanding leadership.
• Culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory
(CLT) refers to belief systems that are shared
among individuals in common cultures.

Global Leadership Dimensions
• Global leadership dimensions that are
contributors to or inhibitors of outstanding
leadership:
– Charismatic/Value-Based
– Team-Oriented
– Participative
– Humane-Oriented
– Autonomous
– Self-Protective

Global Leadership Dimensions
(continued)
• Leadership profiles for each national culture
and clusters of cultures were created based on
scores on the six global leadership dimensions.
• Cultures and clusters differ significantly on all
six of the global leadership dimensions.
• Canada and the U.S. score high on the
charismatic/value-based, participative, and
humane oriented dimensions, and low on the
self-protective dimension, and medium on the
team-oriented and autonomous dimensions.

Leader Attributes
• Many leader attributes such as being honest,

decisive, motivational, and dynamic were found
to be universally desirable and believed to
facilitate outstanding leadership in all GLOBE
countries.
• Some leader attributes such as being loners,
irritable, egocentric, and ruthless are
ineffective in all GLOBE countries.
• Some attributes are culturally contingent – they
are effective in some cultures but are either
ineffective or dysfunctional in others.

Cultural Views of Leadership
Effectiveness from the GLOBE Project

The GLOBE Project (continued)
• The results of the GLOBE project show that

while there are similarities across cultures in
terms of what are considered to be desirable
and undesirable leadership attributes, there are
also important differences.
• Managers need to understand the similarities
and differences in what makes someone an
effective leader across cultures if they are to
be effective global leaders.

Global Leadership
• Global leadership involves having leadership

capabilities required to function effectively in
different cultures and the ability to cross
language, social, economic, and political
borders.
• The essence of global leadership is the ability to
influence people who are not like the leader
and come from different cultural backgrounds.

Global Leadership (continued)
• Global leaders need to have a global mindset,

tolerate high levels of ambiguity, and exhibit
cultural adaptability and flexibility.
• Global leaders have four characteristics:
– Unbridled inquisitiveness
– Personal character
– Duality
– Savvy

Unbridled Inquisitiveness
• Global leaders must be able to function

effectively in different cultures in which they
are required to cross language, social,
economic, and political borders.
• They relish the opportunity to see and
experience new things.

Personal Character
• This involves an emotional connection to people

from different cultures and uncompromising
integrity.

Duality
• Duality means that global leaders must be able

to manage uncertainty and balance global and
local tensions.

Savvy
• Global leaders need to have business and

organization savvy.
• They need to understand the conditions they
face in different countries and be informed of
their organization’s capabilities and
international ventures.

• Individuals with the potential to become global

leaders:
– Have experience working or living in
different cultures.
– Speak more than one language.
– Have an aptitude for global business.

• Becoming an effective global leader requires

extensive training that consists of:
– Travel to foreign countries
– Teamwork with members of diverse
backgrounds
– Formal training programs
– Transfer and overseas assignments
• Long-term international assignments are
considered to be especially effective.

• Many organizations do not have enough global

leaders now or for the future and they do not
have a system in place for developing them.
• Certain countries produce more global leaders
than others.

• Countries that are considered to be the most

global in terms of their involvement in world
trade and investment such as Canada, tend to
produce more global leaders than others given
their size.
• They are middle-economy countries that are
dependent on foreign trade.
• Living in a multicultural environment like
Canada is excellent preparation for becoming a
global manager.

What Style of Leadership is Best?
• An effective leader needs to be capable of using
different styles of leadership.
• The key issue is knowing what style of leadership
is required in each situation that a leader
encounters.
• Key situational variables include the nature of
the task, employee characteristics,
characteristics of the organization, and national
culture.
• Leadership will be effective when the style is
matched to the situation.

Leadership Styles, Situational
Factors, and Effectiveness

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Chapter 9

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 9 / Slide 1

LO9.1 Define leadership and discuss the role of

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 9 / Slide 2

LO9.4 Describe and evaluate the situational

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 9 / Slide 3

LO9.7 Discuss the new and emerging theories of

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 9 / Slide 4

LO9.9 Discuss the GLOBE project and explain

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• The influence that particular individuals exert

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• Leadership is about motivating people and

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• Leadership that involves the ability to

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• Individuals with titles such as manager,

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• Individuals might also emerge to occupy

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• All five of the “Big Five” dimensions of

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• It is difficult to determine whether traits make

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• The extent to which a leader is approachable

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• The degree to which a leader concentrates on

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• Leader reward behaviour provides employees

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• Leader punishment behaviour involves the use

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• Contingent leader reward and punishment

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• The manner in which leaders administer

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• The situation refers to the setting in which

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• The association between leadership orientation

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• Leadership orientation is measured by having a

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• Fiedler has argued that the LPC score reveals a

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• Situational favourableness is the “contingency”

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• The situation is most favourable for leadership

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• The situation is least favourable for leadership