The Skeleton and Muscles

 The skeleton and muscular systems work

together in most animals to form the
musculoskeletal system.

 This system is controlled by the nervous

system.
 Our skeleton provides us with:
◦ Support – the bones of the skeleton provide a rigid
framework that holds the body upright.
◦ Shape – the shape of the body is determined to a
large extent by the skeleton e.g. if a person has
long bones they are tall.
◦ Protection – the skull protects the brain, vertebrae
protect the spinal cord and ribs protect the heart
and lungs.
◦ Movement – without a rigid framework movement
would not be possible.
 The human skeleton is divided into:
◦ The axial skeleton.
◦ The appendicular skeleton.

 The axial skeleton consists of the:

◦ Skull
◦ Spine (vertebrae)
◦ Ribs
◦ Sternum (breastbone)

 The appendicular skeleton consists of the:

◦ Limbs (arms and legs)
◦ Pectoral Girdle (shoulder)
◦ Pelvic Girdle (hip)
Skull
 The skull or cranium consists of over 20
bones fused together.
Spine
 The spine is made of 33
bones called vertebrae.
 The top 24 vertebrae are held
together by ligaments and can
move slightly.
◦ They are separated by discs of
cartilage that act as shock
absorbers.
 The last 9 vertebrae are fused
together and have no discs
between them.
Rib Cage
 The rib cage consists of the:
◦ Sternum (breastbone)
◦ 12 pairs of ribs

 All ribs are attached to the vertebrae of the

spine.
◦ The top 7 ribs are attached to the sternum at the
front (true ribs).
◦ The next 3 are attached to cartilage at the front
(false ribs).
◦ The bottom 2 are only attached to the spine
(floating ribs).
Pectoral Girdle
 The pectoral girdle consists of the:
◦ Clavicle (collarbone)
◦ Scapula (shoulder blade)

 It forms a connection between the spine and

the arms.
Pelvic Girdle
 The pelvic girdle is composed of two halves
joined at the front by cartilage.

 It consists of the hip bones (three fused

bones).

 It forms a connection between the spine (at

the sacrum) and the legs.
 A long bone contains a hollow cavity called
the medullary cavity.
◦ This cavity contains yellow bone marrow.
◦ The cavity is surrounded by compact bone.

 The ends of the bone contain spongy bone.

◦ This is also surrounded by a layer of compact bone.

 Long bones are also enclosed by a tough

layer called the periosteum.

 Cartilage covers the tips of bones in joints.

 There are three types of bone:
◦ Compact bone
◦ Spongy bone
◦ Bone marrow

 Compact bone consists of living bone cells

embedded in a matrix of calcium salts and a
protein called collagen.
◦ It is very dense and gives strength and rigidity.
 Spongy bone consists of a network of thin
bars of bone separated by different sized
spaces.
◦ It is found mostly at the ends of the bone.
◦ The spaces are filled with red bone marrow that
produces blood cells.
◦ It gives strength and rigidity but also makes bones
lighter.
 Bone marrow is a soft fatty substance found
in the medullary cavity and spongy bone.
◦ Red bone marrow is active and makes blood
components.
◦ Yellow bone marrow is inactive and stores fat.

 Cartilage contains a firm but flexible protein

called collagen.
◦ Cartilage reduces friction and acts as a shock
absorber.
 In humans and other mammals, the skeleton
of the embryo is first made of cartilage and
then replaced by bone while we are still in the
womb.

 Bone forming cells, called osteoblasts, invade

the cartilage and produce bone in which they
become trapped.
 Growth in length of bones occurs in the
growth plate which is found between the
epiphysis and diaphysis.

 The growth plate forms cartilage which

elongates the bone.
◦ The cartilage is then converted into bone by the
osteoblasts.
◦ The bone eventually stops increasing in size and
limits the individual adult’s height.
 In adults bone is continually being broken
down and replaced by bone cells called
osteocytes.

 Osteoclasts remove worn bone and deposit

calcium into the blood.
◦ Bone renewal depends on hormone levels, physical
activity and diet.

 Bones contain calcium which makes them

strong and protein which gives flexibility and
prevents bone from being brittle.
 A joint is where two or more bones meet.

 There are three types of joints found in the

body:
◦ Immovable
◦ Slightly movable
◦ Freely movable (synovial)

 The bones at joints are held together by

ligaments which prevent excessive
movement.
 Immovable joints include the skull and pelvic
girdle.
◦ The bones in these joints are fused together.
◦ These joints provide strength, support and
protection.

 Slightly movable joints are found in the

vertebral column.
◦ In these joints the bones are separated by cartilage.
◦ Ligaments between the bones prevent excess
movement.
 In synovial joints the ends of the bones are
covered with cartilage and the bones are
separated by a cavity.

 The joint is surrounded by a synovial

membrane.
◦ This membrane secretes synovial fluid which
lubricates the joint and reduces friction.

 The entire joint is surrounded by a protective

capsule.
 Synovial joints in the human include:
◦ Ball and socket joints – allows movement in most
directions e.g. the hip and shoulder.

◦ Hinge joints – allows movement in one direction

e.g. the elbow, knee and fingers.
 Ligaments are strong, fibrous, slightly elastic
tissues that connect bone to bone.
◦ They are more flexible when warm; hence the need
for warming-up exercises before physical activity.

 Tendons are strong, flexible inelastic fibres

that connect muscle to bone.
◦ They transfer pulling force from the muscle to the
bone.
Osteoarthritis
 Cause: The cartilage in the synovial joints
wears down and more synovial fluid is
produced.
◦ The joints become sore and stiff.
 Prevention: Reducing damage to joints by
using proper footwear when running and
avoiding running on hard surfaces.
 Treatment: There is no cure. Treatments
include rest, gentle exercise to maintain
strength, anti-inflammatory medication and
possibly surgery to replace the joint.
 Muscles pull on bones by contracting thereby
causing them to move.
◦ This requires energy in the form of ATP.

 Most muscles work in pairs called

antagonistic pairs.
◦ An antagonistic pair is two muscles that have
opposite effects on each other.

 Example: The biceps and triceps in the upper

arm.
 The biceps (on top of the humerus) contracts
to bend the joint and pull the lower arm up
towards the body.

 The triceps (at the back of the humerus)

contracts to straighten the joint and extend
the arm.