Transfer Function Models

of Dynamical Processes

Process Dynamics and Control

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 Transfer Functions
For the DC motor,

the Laplace domain dynamics are given by

To get back to time domain, we must

 Specify Laplace domain functions
 Apply partial fraction expansion
 Take Inverse Laplace

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 Transfer Functions
The expression

describes the dynamic behavior of the process explicitly

 The Laplace domain function is called the transfer function

between and

 Transfer functions are usually represented in Block diagram form

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 Transfer Function
 Heated stirred-tank model (constant flow, )

 Taking the Laplace transform yields:

or letting

Transfer functions

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 Transfer Function
 Heated stirred tank example

+
+

e.g. The block is called the transfer function relating Q(s) to T(s)

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 Block Diagrams
 Transfer functions of complex systems can be represented
in block diagram form.

 3 basic arrangements of transfer functions:

1. Transfer functions in series

2. Transfer functions in parallel

3. Transfer functions in feedback form

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 Block Diagrams
 Transfer functions in series

 Overall operation is the multiplication of transfer functions

 Resulting overall transfer function

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 Block Diagrams
 Transfer functions in series (two first order systems)

 Overall operation is the multiplication of transfer functions

 Resulting overall transfer function

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 Transfer Functions
 DC Motor example:
 In terms of angular velocity

 In terms of the angle

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 Transfer Functions
 Transfer function in parallel

 Overall transfer function is the addition of TFs in parallel

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 Transfer Functions
 Transfer function in parallel

 Overall transfer function is the addition of TFs in parallel

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 Transfer Functions
 Transfer functions in (negative) feedback form

 Overall transfer function

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 Transfer Functions
 Transfer functions in (positive) feedback form

 Overall transfer function

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 Transfer Function
 Example

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 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 A positive feedback loop

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 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 Two systems in parallel

 Replace by

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 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 Two systems in parallel

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 Transfer Function
 Example 3.20

 A negative feedback loop

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 Transfer Function
 Example

 Two process in series

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 Process Control

Time Domain Laplace Domain

Process Modeling, Transfer function

Experimentation and Modeling, Controller
Implementation Design and Analysis

Ability to understand dynamics in Laplace and

time domains is extremely important in the
study of control

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 Transfer functions
 Transfer functions are generally expressed as a ratio of
polynomials

Where

 The polynomial is called the characteristic polynomial of

 Roots of are the zeroes of

 Roots of are the poles of

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 Transfer function
 Order of underlying ODE is given by degree of
characteristic polynomial
e.g. First order processes

Second order processes

 Order of the process is the degree of the characteristic

(denominator) polynomial
 The relative degree is the difference between the degree of the
denominator polynomial and the degree of the numerator
polynomial

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 Transfer Function
 Steady state behavior of the process obtained form the
final value theorem
e.g. First order process

For a unit-step input,

From the final value theorem, the ultimate value of is

 This implies that the limit exists, i.e. that the system is stable.

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 Transfer function
 Transfer function is the unit impulse response

e.g. First order process,

Unit impulse response is given by

In the time domain,

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 Transfer Function
 Unit impulse response of a 1st order process

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 Deviation Variables
 To remove dependence on initial condition
e.g.

Compute equilibrium condition for a given and

Define deviation variables

Rewrite linear ODE 0

or

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 Deviation Variables
Assume that we start at equilibrium

Transfer functions express extent of deviation from a given

steady-state

 Procedure
 Find steady-state
 Write steady-state equation
 Subtract from linear ODE
 Define deviation variables and their derivatives if required
 Substitute to re-express ODE in terms of deviation variables

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 Deviation Variables
 In mechanical systems, the equilibrium is usually selected
as the initial rest position
 Cruise control example

 Suspension system example

 Satellite system

 DC motor

 Using initial condition such that the output is at zero,

avoids the need for deviation variables
 Initial conditions must be an equilibrium of the system

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 Deviation variables
 Example (the ball and beam example)

 This is a nonlinear system of ordinary differential equations

 Must be linearized about an equilibrium to obtain a transfer

function model

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 Deviation Variables
 Pendulum example
 System equations are nonlinear in

 For small perturbation about the vertical position , the

nonlinearity can approximated (1st order Taylor series expansion)

 Linearized model

 Starting at rest, , taking the Laplace transform

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 Process Modeling
 Gravity tank

Fo

h F

Objectives: height of liquid in tank L

Fundamental quantity: Mass, momentum
Assumptions:
 Outlet flow is driven by head of liquid in the tank
 Incompressible flow
 Plug flow in outlet pipe
 Turbulent flow

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 Transfer Functions
From mass balance and Newton’s law,

A system of simultaneous ordinary differential equations results

Linear or nonlinear?

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 Nonlinear ODEs
Q: If the model of the process is nonlinear, how do we
express it in terms of a transfer function?

A: We have to approximate it by a linear one (i.e.Linearize)

in order to take the Laplace.

f(x)

f(x0) ∂f
( x0 )
∂x

x0
x 33
 Nonlinear systems
 First order Taylor series expansion

1. Function of one variable

∂ f ( xs )
f ( x ) ≈ f ( xs ) + ( x −xs )
∂x

2. Function of two variables

∂ f ( xs ,us ) ∂ f ( xs ,us )
f ( x , u) ≈ f ( xs , us ) + ( x −xs ) + (u −us )
∂x ∂u

3. ODEs
∂ f ( xs )
x&= f ( x ) ≈ f ( xs ) + ( x −xs )
∂x

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 Transfer Function
 Procedure to obtain transfer function from nonlinear
process models
 Find an equilibrium point of the system
 Linearize about the equilibrium
 Express in terms of deviations variables about the equilibrium
 Take Laplace transform
 Isolate outputs in Laplace domain

 Express effect of inputs in terms of transfer functions

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 Transfer Function
 Ball and beam example
 Linearize the system of equations about equilibrium

 The nonlinear model is given by

 Linearize (1st order Taylor series expansion about equilibrium)

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 Transfer Function
 Linearization gives the linear system

 Taking Laplace transform

 Transfer function

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 First Order Systems
 First order systems are systems whose dynamics are
described by the transfer function

where

 is the system’s (steady-state) gain

 is the time constant

 First order systems are the most common behaviour

encountered in practice

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 First Order Systems
Examples,
Examples Liquid storage

 Assume:
 Incompressible flow
 Outlet flow due to gravity
 Balance equation:
 Total
 Flow In
 Flow Out

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 First Order Systems
 Balance equation:

 Deviation variables about the equilibrium

 Laplace transform

 First order system with

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 First Order Systems
Examples:
Examples Cruise control

DC Motor

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 First Order Systems

Liquid Storage Tank

Speed of a car

DC Motor

First order processes are characterized by:

1. Their capacity to store material, momentum

and energy
2. The resistance associated with the flow of
mass, momentum or energy in reaching their
capacity 42
 First Order Systems
 Step response of first order process

Step input signal of magnitude M

 The ultimate change in is given by

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 First Order Systems
 Step response

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 First Order Systems
 What do we look for?
 System’s Gain: Steady-State Response

 Process Time Constant:

Time Required to Reach

 63.2% of final value

 What do we need?
 System initially at equilibrium
 Step input of magnitude M
 Measure process gain from new steady-state
 Measure time constant
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 First Order Systems
 First order systems are also called systems with finite
settling time
 The settling time is the time required for the system comes
within 5% of the total change and stays 5% for all times

 Consider the step response

 The overall change is



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 First Order Systems
 Settling time

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 First Order Systems
 Process initially at equilibrium subject to a step of
magnitude 1

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 First order process
Ramp response:

Ramp input of slope a

5

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

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 First Order Systems
Sinusoidal response

Sinusoidal
2 input Asin(t)
1.5

0.5
AR
0

-0.5

-1 
-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

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 First Order Systems

0
Bode Plots
10
High Frequency

-1
Corner Frequency Asymptote
10

-2
10 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

Amplitude Ratio Phase Shift

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 Integrating Systems
Example: Liquid storage tank

Fi

F
Laplace domain dynamics

If there is no outlet flow,

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 Integrating Systems
 Example
 Capacitor

 Dynamics of both systems is equivalent

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 Integrating Systems
 Step input of magnitude M

Output
Slope =
Input

Time Time

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 Integrating Systems

 Unit impulse response

Output
Input

Time Time

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 Integrating Systems
 Rectangular pulse response

Output
Input

Time Time

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 Second order Systems
 Second order process:
 Assume the general form

where = Process steady-state gain

= Process time constant
= Damping Coefficient

 Three families of processes

Underdamped
Critically Damped
Overdamped

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 Second Order Systems
Three types of second order process:

1. Two First Order Systems in series or in parallel

e.g. Two holding tanks in series

2. Inherently second order processes: Mechanical systems

possessing inertia and subjected to some external force
e.g. A pneumatic valve

3. Processing system with a controller: Presence of a

controller induces oscillatory behavior
e.g. Feedback control system

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 Second order Systems
 Multicapacity Second Order Processes
 Naturally arise from two first order processes in series

 By multiplicative property of transfer functions

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 Transfer Functions
 First order systems in parallel

 Overall transfer function a second order process (with one zero)

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 Second Order Systems
 Inherently second order process:
e.g. Pneumatic Valve

By Newton’s law

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 Second Order Systems
 Feedback Control Systems

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 Second order Systems
 Second order process:
 Assume the general form

where = Process steady-state gain

= Process time constant
= Damping Coefficient

 Three families of processes

Underdamped
Critically Damped
Overdamped

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 Second Order Systems
 Roots of the characteristic polynomial

Case 1) Two distinct real roots

System has an exponential behavior

Case 2) One multiple real root

Exponential behavior

Case 3) Two complex roots

System has an oscillatory behavior

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 Second Order Systems
 Step response of magnitude M

2

1.8
1.6 
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6

0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 65 10
 Second Order Systems
Observations

 Responses exhibit overshoot when

 Large yield a slow sluggish response

 Systems with yield the fastest response without overshoot

 As with ) becomes smaller, system becomes more

oscillatory

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 Second Order Systems
Characteristics of underdamped second order process

1. Rise time,
2. Time to first peak,
3. Settling time,
4. Overshoot:

5. Decay ratio:

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 Second Order Systems
 Step response

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 Second Order Systems
 Sinusoidal Response

where

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 Second Order Systems

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