AEOLIAN LANDFORMS

Applied Geomorphology
Cave Formation Theories
Channel Morphology
COASTAL LANDFORMS
EROSIONAL & DEPOSITIONAL
Cont drft
Continental Drift Theory
Drainage Patterns
Earthquake
Floods and Droughts
Earth's Interior
Minerals and Rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Mountains
Folded Mountains

Weathering & Erosion-3 Types and 6 Agents

 AEOLIAN LANDFORMS

Inselberg

Demoiselles
Transportation of Wind Particles

EROSIONAL
LANDFORMS

Mesa & Butte

Deflation Hollow / Deflation
Basin

Zeugen

Mushroom Rock

Yardangs
 DEPOSITIONAL
LANDFORMS

Cross Section of Sand Dunes

Cross Section of Sand Dunes

Movement of Sand Dunes

Applied
Geomorphology
 Cave Formation Theories
Gardner 6 Cave Formation Theories: Vadose,
Pheratic and Static Zone - Swinnerton, Malott,
Davis, Gardner

• Phreatic zone or zone of saturation: Area in an Water table theory is given by Swinnerton and
aquifer, below the water table, in which explains that rapidly moving water at the water
relatively all pores and fractures are saturated table is responsible for the solution of most caves.
with water. It defines the lower edge of the Gardner based his “static water zone” theory
vadose zone. of cavern development on the concept that
• Vadose zone or unsaturated zone: Part of Earth dissection of permeable strata was responsible
between land surface and top of phreatic zone. for initiating groundwater movement and
At this zone groundwater is at atmospheric solution of caverns.
pressure.
Cave Formation Malott gave the invasion theory of cavern
Three classes of caves sculpturing process: development and maintained that most cavern
• By pressure or flow: Mechanical pressure include development takes place above the water table
lava tunnels associated with volcanoes (e.g., where groundwater velocity is greatest.
Catacombs Cave in Lava Beds National
Monument, California, USA) and badland caves Davis gave the two cycle theory and said that cave
by hydraulic pressure (e.g., caves of arid initiation and most cavern enlargement occur
Badlands of South Dakota, USA) at random depth below the water table while
• By erosion: Shoreline grottos created by second cycle of cavern development may occur
mechanical action of waves (e.g., La Jolla sea when the water table has been lowered by surface
caves near San Diego, California, USA) and rock denudation.
shelters cut by river meanders (e.g., sandstone -
alcoves of cliff-dwelling Pueblo Indians, SW
USA).
• By solution: Ice caves associated with glaciers and
limestone caves (the most common ones)
Types of Cave Formation Theories by
Solution
Speleogenesis: Origin and development of caves
• Vadose Theories - Dwerry House, Greene,
Matson, and Malott
• Deep Phreatic Theories - Cvijic, Grund, Davis &
Bretz
• Shallow Phreatic Theories - Swinnerton, Rhoades
and Sinacori, and Davies
• Static Water Zone Theory - Gardner
 Channel Morphology

Channel Geometry
Size & Shape of Cross Sectional and
Longitudinal Channel

Hydraulic Geometry

Channel Fluid Dynamics

• Gradient
• Width & Confinement
• Roughness
• Discharge
• Sediments Channel Types & Patterns

Channel Bed Topography

COASTAL LANDFORMS
EROSIONAL & DEPOSITIONAL
 Other Erosional
Features
•Marine Terrace
•Hanging valley
•Rock Reef
•Beach Scrap
•Rill Marks
•Backwash Pattern
•Indented Coastline
COASTAL DEPOSITIONAL
LANDFORMS

•Beach
•Bar/Shoal •Washover Fans
•Barrier •Tide Marks
•Tombolo •Swash Marks
•Spit
•Hook
•Loop
•Wavecut Platform (Depositional)
•Ridge & Runnel
•Lagoons
•Mudflat
•Beach Cusp
•Beach Ridge
•Berm
 Continental Drift

This theory was propounded by Wegner who was trying to explain the past climatic changes in
different regions. His theory depended upon the evidences like the juxtafixation of the opposite
coast of Atlantic, presence of coalfields in temperate regions when they could only be formed in
the tropical regions, evidences left by the glacial flow of the past, evidences of fossil fuels and
similarity in the lithology of the rock structure on the opposite coast of the Atlantic. According
to Wegner, the continents after breaking away from the Pangea(the unified landmass) moved
along two directions - (l)equatorward movement (2)westward movement. The equatorward
movement of continental blocks was caused by gravitational differential force and force of
buoyancy. The westward movement of the continents was caused by the tidal force of the sun
and the moon.
According to Wegner the Pangea, that is, the complete landmass as it was before any disruption,
began to separate into Gondwanaland and Angaraland in the Carboniferous period. The
intervening space between these two giant continental blocks was filled up with water and the
resultant water body was called Tethys Sea, Gondwanaland was disrupted during Cretaceous
period and Indian Peninsula, Madagascar, Australia and Antarctica broke away from the
Gondwana-landand drifted apart under the impact of tidal force of the sun and the moon.
Similarly N. America broke away from Angaraland and drifted westward due to tidal force.
Similarly, South America broke away from Africa and moved westward under the impact of the
tidal force.
Wegner was later criticized for his illogical consideration of the nature of forces behind the
continental drift. Later on the findings associated with sea-floor spreading and paleomagnetism
clearified the real forces behind the movement of continents.
 Continents drf thy
Abraham Ortelius in 1596

Alfred Wegener in 1912

“Die Entstehung der Kontinente and Ozeane”

Translated in English in 1924

Plate tectonics theory in 1960’s

Alfred Wegener proposed Continental

Drift Theory

• Proposed that continents had once

joined, and drifted apart.
• Jigsaw fit can be seen from map of
soil types below
Process of Theory
•Forces Responsible for Drift
•Actual Drifting
•Mountain Building
•Origin of Island Arcs
 Drainage Patterns

The stream types - Consequent,

Subsequent, Resequent, Insequent and
Obsequent streams are discussed. The
concept of river capture, elbow of
capture, captor stream, wind gap and
misfit stream are explained. This video
explains drainage patterns viz., parallel,
radial , centripetal, trellised, rectangular,
annular, contorted, deranged, dendritic,
antecedent and superimposed patterns

Drainage Patterns

Earthquake
• Catastrophic release of strain energy stored
in the rocks around a fault.
• Where does the energy come from?
– Moving plates which are driven by gravity and
heat from Earth’s interior.
About Earthquakes Earthquakes
generate waves that travel through the
earth
Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along
faults Faults are classified by the kinds of
movement that occur along them
Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings
kill people Magnitude and Intensity
Seismic waves are used to map the
earth’s interior
Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible
Major Terms Confusing Terms!
Isoseismic Lines: Join points of same
intensity or equal damage due to
earthquakes.
Homoseismal or Coseismal: Join places
where shocks from earthquake arrive at
same time
• Tectonic plates move past each other causing
stress. Stress causes the rock to deform
– Plastic Deformation: Does not cause earthquakes
– Elastic Deformation: Rock stretches then
reaches a
breaking point, releasing energy
– Flow: It is viscous behavior
– Fracture: Brittle behavior seen in solids
Earthquake
Elastic Rebound
Why Earthquakes Occur? Strain
Deformation in a solid induced by applied
stress & is dimensionless
Example: If 5 cm long rubber band is
stretched, it becomes 6 cm long the
strain is: 1 cm / 5 cm = 0.20 or 20%
Strain is due to stress but it can also lead
to new stress which again causes strain.
stress -> strain -> stress -> strain …
chicken -> egg -> chicken -> egg …
Elastic Energy
• On straining an elastic material, it stores the
energy that deforms it.
• When given an opportunity, elastic material
can release the stored energy
Causes of Earthquake
• Plate Tectonics
– Divergent Plate Boundaries: Mid Oceanic Ridges
– Convergent Plate Boundaries: San Andreas Fault
– Slip (Transform) Boundaries: Mid Continental
Belt
• Volcanic Activities: Krakatoa Volcano
• Anthropogenic Factors: Greece, Bhatsa Dam
(near Shahapura, Maharashtra, India)
• Crustal Contraction
The earthquake is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the
earth in widening circles from a point of sudden energy release, the focus. The point within the
earth where earthquakes are generated is called focus or hypocenter. The point on the earth's
surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter.
Four types of earthquake waves are found: three discovered by R D Oldham and one later, by
Augustas E. H. Love
Basically, they may be divided into two chief kinds of seismic waves:
1. Body waves and
2. Surface waves.
Body Waves: The fastest seismic waves, move through the earth. Slower surface waves travel
along the surface of the earth. Body waves tend to cause the most earthquake damage. There are
two kinds of body waves:
1. Compressional waves and
2. Shear waves.
As the waves pass through the earth, they cause particles of rock to move in different ways.
Compressional waves push and pull-the rock. They cause buildings and other structures to
contract and expand. Shear waves make rocks bend or slide from side to side, and buildings
shake. Compressional waves can travel through solids, liquids, or gases, but shear waves can
pass only through solids. Compressional or longitudinal waves are the fastest seismic waves,
and they arrive first at a distant point. For this reason, compressional waves are also called
primary (P) waves. ie they have shortest wavelength among the four. Their velocity is 5 to 8 km
per second. They can travel through liquids and solids but travel faster in denser solid media.
These waves are like sound waves and cause any rock in their path to compress and then expand
in the same direction as the waves are travelling. Primary waves undergo refraction and
reflection at the margin of earth's outer lighter shell and inner dense core. Secondary or S waves
which are of medium wavelength, are also called Shake or Shear waves. Shear waves, which
travel slower and arrive later, are called secondary (S) waves. Body waves travel faster deep
within the earth than near the surface. For example, at depths of less, than 25 kilometers,
compressional waves travel at about 8 kilometres per second, and shear waves travel at J.8
kilometres per second. At a depth of 1,000 kilometres, the waves travel more than 11/2 times
that speed.
Surface Waves: are long, slow waves. They produce what people feel as slow rocking sensations
and cause little or no damage to buildings. There are two kinds of surface waves: Love waves
and Rayleigh waves. Love waves, named after AEH Love in 1911, travel through the earth's
surface horizontally and move the ground from side to side. Rayleigh waves, named after Lord
Rayleigh in 1885, makes the surface of the earth roll like waves on the ocean. Typical Love waves
travel at about 4.4 kilometers per second, and Rayleigh waves, the slowest of the seismic waves,
move at about 3.7 kilometers per second
Damage by Earthquakes
(1) Fault Slippage: Near a fault, both the shifting of large blocks of the earth's crust, called fault
slippage, and the shaking of the ground due to seismic waves cause destruction. The rock on
either side of a fault may shift only slightly during an earthquake or several meters.
(2) Liquefaction: In areas with soft, wet soils, a process called liquefaction may intensify
earthquake damage. Liquefaction occurs when strong ground shaking causes wet soils to behave
temporarily like liquids rather than solids. Anything on top of liquefied soil may sink into the
soft ground. The liquefied soil may also flow toward lower ground, burying anything in its path.
(3) Tsunamis. An earthquake on the ocean floor can give a tremendous push to surrounding
seawater and create one or more large, destructive waves called tsunamis, also known as seismic
sea waves, other horizontally.
Causes of Earthquake
1. Continental Drift
2. Sea-floor Spreading
3. Plate Tectonics
4. Isostasy and Faulting
5. Hydrostatic Pressure and Anthropogenic Causes: The introduction of additional artificial
superincumbent load through the construction of large dams and impounding of enormous
volume of water in bog reservoirs behind the dams cause disequilibrium of already
isostatically
adjusted rocks below the reservoirs or further-augment the already fragile structures due to
faults and fractures underneath.
6. Volcanicity Measuring Instruments:
(1) Seismograph: The first electromagnetic seismograph was constructed by Italian scientist in
1855. But the first modern seismograph was devised by John Milne-in 1880, the author of the
book 'Earthquake and Other Movements'. It is based on the principle of pendulum.
(i) Seismoscope is a qualitative device to indicate the arrival of an earthquake with human
perception may not register if the
acceleration is less than 1 cm/s the minimum acceleration felt by human beings.
(ii) Seismograph, on the other hand, records an earthquake and this piece of recording is called
a seismogram. A telegraph is what a seismogram to seismograph is.
(iii) Seismometer lies between a Seismoscope and a seismograph. The movements of the device
are calibrated with known earthquake parameters. Oldham's array of wooden cylinders is a
Seismoscope:
(2) Accelerographs: are specifically designed to measure, the direction and intensity of ground
motions during an earthquake for application to earthquake engineering.
(3) Inverted Pendulum: are used in the seismograph.
(4) Chronograph: the paper component of a seismograph is called a chronograph which consists
of a drum rotating at a controlled constant speed around which a time-marked paper moves like
a conveyor belt, just touching the stylus.

Measurement of Earthquake
1. Richter scale: Probably the best-known gauge of earth-quake intensity is the local Richter
magnitude scale, developed in 1935 by United States seismologist Charles Francis Richter. This
scale, commonly known as the Richter scale, measures the ground motion caused by an
earthquake.
2. It is a logarithmic scale that runs from 1 to 9, though no upper limit exists; a magnitude 7
quake is 10 times more powerful than a magnitude 6 quake, 100 times more powerful than a
magnitude 5 quake, 1000 times more powerful than a magnitude 4 quake, and so on. An
estimated 800 quakes of magnitudes 5 to 6 occur annually worldwide, in comparison with about
50,000 quakes of magnitudes 3 to 4, and only about one earthquake of magnitudes 8 to 9. Until
1979 an earthquake of magnitude 8.5 was thought to be the most powerful possible; since then,
however, improvements in seismic measuring techniques have enabled seismologists to refine
the scale, and 9.5 is now considered to be the practical limit. Every increase of one number in
magnitude means the energy release of the quake is 32 times greater. For example, an
earthquake of magnitude 7.0 releases 32 times as much energy as an earthquake measuring 6.0.
An earthquake with a magnitude of less than 2.0 is so slight that usually only a seismometer can
detect it. A quake greater than 7.0 may destroy many buildings. There are about 10 times as
many quakes for every decrease in Richter magnitude by one unit. For example, there are 10
times as many earthquakes with magnitude 6.0 as there are with magnitude 7.0.
3. The largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude scale measured 9.5. It was
an interplate earthquake that occurred along the Pacific coast of Chile in South America in 1960.
The largest intraplate earthquakes known struck in central Asia and in the Indian Ocean in
1905, 1920, and 1957. They range between about 8.0 and 8.3.
4. Mercalli Scale: It was introduced in 1800s by the Italian seismologist Giuseppe Mercalli,
measures the intensity of shaking with gradations from I to XII. Because seismic surface effects
diminish with distance from the focus of the quake, the Mercalli rating assigned to the quake
depends on the site of the mea-surement. Intensity I on this scale is defined as an event felt by
very few people, whereas intensity XII is a catastrophic event that causes total destruction.
Intensities II to III on the Mercalli scale are roughly equal to magnitudes 3 to 4 on the Richter
scale, and XI to XII to 8 to 9.
5. Rossi-Forel Scale: It is a scale for rating the intensity of earthquake shocks, devised in 1878. It
was modified by the Mercalli Scale.
 Plate Tectonics

Types of Seismic Waves

 Body & Surface Waves

Distribution of Earthquake
Circum-Pacific Belt – 68% earthquakes
Mid Continental Belt – 21% earthquakes
East African Belt East Indian Belt Mid
Atlantic Ridge Gulf of Aden
Richter & Mercalli Scale

Magnitude & Intensity Intensity How

Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
Magnitude Related to Energy Release
Determined from Seismic Records Rough
correlation between the two for shallow
earthquakes
Intensity of Earthquake Distance from
epicenter Type of ground material (e.g. soil,
rock) Amount of energy at epicenter Depth of
earthquake focus Distance from epicenter
Type of rocks & degree of consolidation
Geographical Impacts of Earthquake Earthquake Management Early warning
Landsides e.g., Lathur in India Damming seismic stations Long term predictions
of rivers & floods Raising or lowering sea Earthquake resistant buildings Abnormal
floor Raising or lowering coastal regions, changes in animal behavior Expertise
e.g., in 1899 Alaska coast was lowered by training 3 R’s (Rescue, Relief,
16 m Fault formation Change in surface Rehabilitation) Coordination among
drainage & underground circulation of authoritie
water Tsunamis & consequent damage
Vertical & lateral displacement of crust
Economic
Impacts of Earthquake Damage to oil
pipelines, electric wires & consequent
fires Devastation of cities, fires &
diseases Fall of buildings Loss of life &
property
 Floods and Droughts

Factors Affecting Floods

Meteorological Factors
Geomorphic Factors
Anthropogenic Factors

Flood Control Programs Immediate

Short Term Long Term Post Flood
Management
Drought Types Meterological
Hydrological Agricultural Soil Moisture
Socio-Economic Famine Ecologica
Cause & Effects of Drought
 Sources for the study of Earth's Interior:
1. Artificial Sources -
a. Density
b. Pressure
c. Temperature
2. Tectonics is concerned with the form, pattern and
evolution of the globe's major features
such as mountain ranges, plateaus, fold belts and island
arcs.
3. Structural Geology: It concerns smaller structures such
as anticlines, faults and joints.
4. Tectogenesis: It means the study of deformation.
5. 5.Tectostasy and Tectodynamic: J Tricart divided
tectonics into two categories: tectostatic
and tectodynamic types. Tectostasy refers to the actual
disposition of existing strata and
tectodynamism refers to the deformations that the rocks
underwent at the given time
period.
d. Meteorites
Important Notes
1. Average Density of Earth: 5.52 g/cm
.Average Density of Earth's crust:2.6 to 3.3
g/cm This
indicates higher density below the crust
and because the acceleration due to gravity
is
quite uniform everywhere therefore mass is
distributed uniformly in the form of
concentric layers.
2. Pressure in itself is not responsible for
the increase in density, rather the core is
composed
of intrinsically heavy metallic materials of
high density.
3. Temperature increases at the rate of 2°
to 3°C on every 100 m temperature
a. 100 km 1100 degree c
b. 400-700km ISOO-to WC
c. 2900 km 3700 de c
d. 5100 km 4300 de c
4. Meteorites (hitting earth) allow us to
determine the density, mineralogy and
chemistry of
the nickel iron core of bodies having a similar
composition to that of the earth.
5. Natural sources
a. Vulcanicity
b. Evidences from Seismology
6. Theories related to the origin of earth -
Planetesimal, Tidal and Nebular Hypothesis
7. Seismology - Study of seismic waves
generated during earthquakes.
Earth's Interior
Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are of three types:
1. Primary (Longitudinal or
Compressional or 'P') waves-to and fro
motion of particles in
line of the propagation of the ray. These
waves can pass through both the solid
and the
liquid medium
2. Secondary (transverse or distortional
or S) waves-particles move at right
angles to the
rays. These waves cannot pass through
the liquid.
3. Surface (Long-Period or 'L') waves.
4. Affect only the surface of the earth and
covers the longest distance of all seismic
waves.
5. It has lower speed than P and S waves
but is of most violent and destructive
nature. These
waves get reflected and refracted while
passing through a body having
heterogeneous
composition and varying density zones
at the discontinuities.
Discontinuities
Many such discontinuities are expressed as
follows -
1. 1.Gutenberg discontinuity -Between outer
liquid core and the solid mantle
2. Mohorovicic discontinuity-Between crust and
mantle.
3. Conrad discontinuity- Between oceanic
(Basaltic or SIMA layer) and continental
(Granites
or SIAL layer) Crust- Up to 30-40 km beneath
the continents (greater depth in
mountainous regions). 10 km deep beneath the
oceans
Regions
Mantle - Below the crust and up to 2900 km. It
is a solid layer.
Core - Outer core is liquid in state where as
inner core is solid.
Chemically the earth can be divided into
following layers:
SiMa
SiAl Below SiAl
Just below outer sedimentary cover. Composed mainly of basalt
Composed mainly of granites Source of magma and lava
Density - 2.9 Rich in silica and magnesium
50 to 300km thick. Density-2.9 to 4.7
Rich in silica and aluminium Thickness - 1000 to 2000 km
It forms the continental layer. Basic in nature
Acidic in nature Silicate mainly present are those of magnesium,
Silicates mainly present are those of sodium, calcium and Iron.
potassium and aluminum.

NiFe
Below Sima
Rich in nickel and iron
Very high density
Diameter of this layer - 6880 km
Indicates magnetic property of the earth's
interior
Mechanical Divisions of Earth
Mechanically the earth can be divided into
following layers
Lithosphere
The crust and the upper mantle (40 to 80 km)
move as a unit known as Lithosphere
Divided into several large fragments called
plates.
Moves over Asthenosphere
Asthenosphere
Beneath Lithosphere and up to 300km of depth
Low velocity zone (that is slow speed of seismic
ways in this zone).
Plastic or less viscous (softer, more pliable).
Mesosphere
Below Asthenosphere
Whole mantle apart from the portion lying in
Asthenosphere and Lithosphere.
Barysphere
It comprises core.
Outer layer is liquid in state where as the inner
core is solid.
Structural Geomorphology
Uniclinal or Homoclinal Structure: It represents
inclined rock strata at uniform dip angle
caused by general regional tilt.
They are subjected to differential erosion
wherein resistant rocks are less eroded than soft
rocks.
The differential erosion of dipping strata of
varying resistance gives birth to trellis drainage
pattern and a few typical topographic features
such as scrap and vale topography, cuesta and
hogback ridges, etc.
Cuesta: also called Homoclinal Ridge, physical
feature that has a steep cliff or escarpment on
one side and a gentle dip or back slope on the
other. This landform occurs in areas of tilted
strata and is caused by the differential
weathering and erosion of the hard capping
layer and
the soft underlying cliff maker, which erodes
more rapidly. Cuestas with dip slopes of 40°-45°
are usually called hogback ridges. Cuesta
escarpments tend to be cut into rough, hilly
country
with numerous ravines and steep valleys,
because the short streams flowing down the
steep
scarp face rapid erosion. The back slopes
commonly are smooth.
Cuestas are common in the United States, notably in
Arizona and New Mexico and along the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
Buttes: The progressive dissection of twin cuestas
results in the formation of isolated flattopped.
Hogback: The escarpments or ridges having
symetrical slopes on both sides are called
hogback ridges.
Strike vales: Rivers form their valleys along soft rock
beds due to comparatively more erosion
than the resistant rock beds giving birth to the
formation of strike vales
The Crust: Minerals and Rocks
There are eight
abundant elements in Rock Types
the earths' crust:
Oxygen 47% Rocks are aggregates of mineral grains or crystals. They are
Silicon 28% classified into three major types
Aluminium 8.1% according to origin:
Iron 6% Igneous rocks are those that solidify from a melt (called
Magnesium 4% magma, a molten mixture of rockforming
Calcium 2.4% minerals and usually volatiles such as gases and steam). Since
Potassium 2.3% their constituent
Sodium 2.1% minerals are crystallized from molten material, igneous rocks
are formed at high temperatures.
1. Igneous
There are eight 2. Sedimentary
important elements in 3. Metamorphic
the whole earth:
Iron 35% Basic Characteristics
Oxygen 30% 1. These are solidified from a molten magma
Silicon 15% and water cannot percolate through them.
Magnesium 13% 2. They usually do not occur in distinct beds or
Nickel 2.4% strata like sedimentary rocks.
Sulphur 1.9% 3. Igneous rocks are generally not fossiliferous.
Calcium 1.1% 4. Igneous rocks are generally granular and
Aluminium 1.1% crystalline.
5. It is less affected by chemical weathering as
the water does not percolate in them easily.
6. These rocks are generally weathered by
mechanical weathering.
Most of the igneous rocks consist of silicate minerals:
(a) Acidic when 65 to 85 per cent: acid igneous lack in iron.and magnesium; quartz and feldspar
are common minerals and granite is the common rock.
(b) basic igneous rocks with 45 to 60 per cent silica content are dominated by ferromag-nesium
minerals and have very low amount of feldspar and basalt, gabbro, dolerite are the examples.
(c) Intermediate igneous rocks have 45 per cent silica and examples are diorite and andesite.
(d) Ultra-basic igneous rocks have less than 45 per cent silica and example is Peridotite. The
great majority of the igneous rocks are composed of silicate minerals and oxygen.

Highlights of Igenous Rocks

• The major mineralogical components of igneous rocks can be divided into two groups:
felsic(from feldspar and silica) and mafic (from magnesium and ferrous iron).
• The felsic minerals include quartz, tridymite, cristo-balite, feldspars (plagioclase and
alkali
• feldspar), feldsp-athoids(nephelihe and leucite), muscovite, and corundum. y Because
felsic minerals lack iron and magnesium, they are generally light in colour and
consequently are referred to as leucocratic.
• The mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxenes, amph-iboles, and biotites, all of which are dark
in colour.
• Supersaturated minerals include quartz and its polymorphs and a low-calcium orthorhombic
• pyroxene (called hyper-sthene).
• Extrusive igneous rocks are: Rhyolite (felsic minerals, typically quartz, feldspars, and mica);
• Andesite (felsic minerals without quartz, usually including plagioclase feldspar and
• amphibole); Basalt (mafic minerals, typically plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene and olivine).
Intrusive Rocks
Intrusive has seven parts: Extrusive Rocks
1. Plutonic: deep-seated origin; rocks have Extrusive is of two types: Explosive type and
coarse grain size; diorite, gabbro, granite, Quiet Type: Bombs are big fragments; lapilli
peridotite and syenite are examples. The largest peas
partially exposed pluton is a batholith. size; tuffs are volcanic materials; breccia or
2. Hypabyssal: originates due to cooling and agglomerates mixture of smaller and larger
solidification of rising magma. parts.
3. Batholith: large body of igneous rock formed
beneath the Earth's surface by the intrusion Igneous Rocks
and solidification of magma.A well-known
Igneous Rocks are divided into six types
batholith is located in the Sierra Nevada range
of California, US; Murha pahar at Ranchi is on the basis of textual charcteristics:
another example. (1) Pegmatitic igneous rocks (very coarse-
4. Laccolith: in geology, any of a type of igneous grained like pegmititic granites, pegmatitic
intrusion that has split apart two strata, diorite,
resulting in a domelike structure; the floor of pegmatitic synite)
the structure is usually horizontal. A (2) Phaneritic igneous rocks (coarse-grained
laccolith is often smaller than a stock. A well- like granites, diorites)
known example of a laccolith is found in the (3)Aphanitic igneous rocks (fine-grained rocks
Henry Mountains, Utah. like basalt, felsite, rocks of sills and dykes)
5. Sill: also called sheet-tabular igneous (4)Glassy igneous rocks (grainless like pitch
intrusion emplaced parallel to the bedding of stones, obsidians, pumice, perlite)
the enclosing rock. Although they may have (5)Porphyritic igneous rocks (mixed-grained).
vertical to horizontal orientations, nearly (6)FragmentaI igneous rocks (consisting of
horizontal sills are the most common. bombs, breccia, volcanic dusts, tuffs).
6. Stocks: with outcrop and mainly composed of
granite.
7. Dykes: sheet-like body which rises upward from a
magma chamber and cuts discordantly
through the bedding plane of the country rock. Dyke Basalts
of Zimbabwe is the largest example. Extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock that is low in
silica content, dark in colour, and
Granite comparatively rich in iron and magnesium.
Coarse or medium-grained intrusive igneous rock that is Some basajis are quite glassy (tachylytes), and
rich in quartz and feldspar; it is the many are very fine-grained and compact; it is
most common plutonic rock of the Earth's crust, forming more usual, however, for them to exhibit
by the cooling of magma (silicate melt) porphyritic structure, with larger crystals
at depth. (phenocrysts) of olivine, augite, or feldspar in a
Granite may occur in dikes or sills. finely crystalline matrix (ground-mass).
Rocks containing less than 20 percent quartz are almost Olivine and augite are the most common
never named granite, and rocks porphyritic minerals in basalts; porphyritic
containing more than 20 percent (by volume) of dark, or plagioclase feldspars are also found. Basaltic
ferromagnesian, minerals are also lavas are frequently spongy or pumiceous; the
seldom called granite. steam cavities become filled with secondary
The minor essential minerals of granite may include minerals such as calcite, chlorite, and zeolites.
muscovite, biotite, amphi-bole, or Basalts may be broadly classified on a chemical
pyroxene. and petrographic basis into two main groups:
Mineral composition of granite: Feldspar(52.3%); the calc-alkali and the alkali basalts;
Quartz(31.3%); Mica (11.5%); Hornblende Normal alkali basalt contains olivine and,
(2.4 %); Iron (2.0%) and others (0.55%) commonly, adiopsidicortitaniferous augite
Granites are generally resistant to erosion but when the Feldslpar is most dominant (46.2%); Augite (36.9%);
rocks are well jointed, they are easily Olivine (7.6 per cent); Mineral Iron (9.5
weathered and very peculiar landform is generated, calledper cent).
tors
Sedimentary rocks are produced by the
weathering of pre-existing rocks and the
subsequent
transportation and deposition of the
weathering
Important characteristics
1. It contains strata or layers.
2.The layers are rarely horizontal and generally
tilted due to lateral compressive and tensile
forces.
3.It is formed of sediments derived from the
older rocks, plants and animals remains.
4. It covers the 75 per cent of the surface area of
the globe.
5.Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable
and porous.
6.1t is characterised by different sizes of joints.
These are generally perpendicular to the
bedding
plains.
7.The riverine sedimentary rocks develop cracks
when exposed to the sun. These cracks are
generally of polygonal shape.
8. The most favourable sites of their formation
is shallow sea floor hording continents.
9.The connecting plane between two
consecutive beds or layers of sedimentary rocks
is called 'bedding plane'. The uniformity of two
beds along a bedding plane is called conformity
(i.e whenbeds are similar in all respect). When
two consecutive beds are not uniform or
conformal, the structure is called unconformity.
In fact, 'an unconformity is a break in a
stratigraphic sequence resulting from a change
in conditions that caused deposition to cease for
a considerable time'.
There are several types of unconformity e-g
(i) non-conformity (where sedimentary rocks
succeed igneous or metamorphic rocks),
(ii) angular unconformity (where horizontal
sedimentary beds are deposited over previously
folded or tilted strata),
(iii) disconformity (where two conformable beds are
seperated by mere changes of sediment
type),
(iv) paraconformity (where two sets of conformable
beds are separted by same types of
sediments) etc.
10. Sedimentation units in the sedimentary rocks
having a thickness of greater than 1cm are
called beds. The upper and lower surfaces of a bed
are called bedding planes or bounding
planes. Sometimes the lower surface of a bed is
called sole while the upper surface is called
upper bedding surface.There are further
sedimentary units within a bed. The units having a
thickness of more than 1 cm are called as layers or
strata whereas the units below 1 cm thickness
are known as laminae. The several strata and
laminae makeup a bed. When the beds are
deposited at an angle to the depositional surface,
they are called cross-beds and the general
phenomena of inclined layers are called cross-
lamination or cross-bedding.
11.Soft muds and alluviam deposited by the
rivers during flood period develop cracks when
baked in the sun. These cracks are generally of
polygonal shapes. Such cracks are called mud
cracks or sun cracks.
12.Most of the sedimentary rocks are permeable
and porous but a few of them are also
nonporous
and impermeable. The porosity of the rocks
depends upon the ratio between the voids
and the volume of a given rock mass.
l,Clastic(Composed of rock and mineral
fragments)
Rock Type
Sandstone Cemented sand grains,
Conglomerate (Sand-stone with pebbles of hard
rock),
Mudstone(Silt and clay with some sand), Clay-
stone(Clay), Shale (Clay, broken into flat flakes
and plates, with thin laminite;rich in organic
material; found in lagoons, shallow seas and
tidal
flats), Siltstones (Fine grained clastic rock;
carried by rivers). 2.Chemically Precipitated
(From
sea water or salty inland lakes)
Limestone (Calcium Carbonate; formed by sea or
lake), Dolomite (Magnesium and calcium
carbonate),Chert(Silica, a non-crystalline form of
quartz), Evaporites (Minerals formed by
evaporation of salty solutions in shallow inland lakes
or coastal lagoons). 3.Organic (Formation
due to organic material). Rock Type - Coal (It is
formed from peat), Petroleum (It is a mineral
fuel; found in liquid hydrocarbon), Natural Gas(It is a
mineral fuel; a gaseous hydrocarbon).

There are three major categories in which
sedimentary rocks are recognized:
1. Terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks
2. Carbonates (lime-stone and dolomite)
3. Non-carbonate chemical sedimentary rocks.
Terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks are
composed of the detrital fragments of
preexisting rocks and minerals and are
conventionally considered to be equivalent to
clastic sedimentary rocks in general.
Because most of the clasts are rich in silica, they
are also referred to as siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks. Silicic-lastics are further
subdivided on the basis of clast diameter into
conglomerate and breccia, sandstone, siltstone, and
finer-than-silt-sized mudrock (shale,
claystone, and mudstone). The carbonates,
limestones arid dolomites, consist of the
minerals aragonite, calcite, and dolomite.
Limestones
Limestones and dolostones (dolomites) make
up the bulk of the nonterrigenous sedimentary
rocks. Limestones are for the most part primary
carbonate rocks. They consist of 50 percent or
more calcite and aragonite. Dolomites are
mainly produced by the secondary alteration or
replacement of limestones; i.e., the mineral
dolomite replaces the calcite and aragonite
minerals
in limestones during diagenesis.
The colour of a sandstone depends on its
detrital grains and bonding material. Mudrocks:
It
includes all siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
composed of silt and clay-size particles:
siltstone
(1/16 millimetre to 1/256 millimetre diameters),
claystone (less than 1/256 millimetre), and
mudstone (a mix of silt and clay).
Shale refers specifically to mudrocks that
regularly exhibit lamination or fissility or both.
Mudrocks are also loosely referred to as both
lutites and pelites and as argillaceous
sedimentary rocks.
Coal: Coals are the most abundant organic-rich
sedimentary rock.
With increasing compaction and carbon
content, peat can be transformed into the
various
kinds of coal: initially brown coal or lignite, then
soft or bituminous coal, and finally, with
metamorphism, hard or anthracite coal. In the
geologic record, coal occurs in beds, called
seams, which are blanketlike coal deposits a few
centimetres to metres or hundreds of metres
thick.
Many coal seams occur within cyclothems,
rhythmic successions of sandstone, mudrock,
and
limestone in which nonmarine units are
regularly and systematically overlain by an
underclay, the coal seam itself, and then various
marine lithologies.
Oil and natural gas: Major natural gas varieties,
include methane, ethane, propane, and
butane.
These natural gases are commonly, though not
invariably, intimately associated with the
various liquid hydrocarbons-mainly liquid
paraffins, napthenes, and aromatics that
collectively constitute oil.
Sandstone Components
Sandstones are siliciclastic sedimentary rocks.
There are three basic components of
sandstones:
1. Detrital grains, mainly transported, sand-size
minerals such as quartz and feldspar,
2. A detrital matrix of clay or mud, which is
absent in "clean" sandstones, and
3. A cement that is chemically precipitated in
crystalline form from solution and that serves
to fill up original pore spaces.

Metamorphic rocks are those formed by
changes in pre-existing rocks under the
influence of high temperature, pressure, and
chemically active solutions. The changes can be
chemical
(compositional) and physical (textural) in
character.
Features of Metamorphic
1. The change is due to change in texture and
mineral composition of the pre-existing rocks.
2. After metamorphism, some rocks become
more harder than its original structure: marble
is harder than limestone, quartzite from
sandstone, and diamond from carbon.
3. They do not have fossils
4. The coarse-grained metamorphic rocks are
imperfectly foliated , e.g, gneises from granites
while fine-grained metamorphic rocks are
perfectly foliated, for example schist from
shales.
5. It may split along the bedding planes, for
example mica-schist.
6. Some of them are impervious (marble and
slate) and some of them are previous for
example gneiss.
7. Most of it comprises bands of granular quartz
and felspar.
Metamorphic Rocks
Rock Type Description
1. Slate: Shale exposed to heat and pressure that
splits into hard flat plates.
2. Schist: Shale exposed to intense heat and
pressure that shows the evidence of shearing
3. Quartzite: Sandstone that is welded by a silica
cement into a very hard rock of solid quartz.
4. Marble: Limestone exposed to heat and
pressure, resulting in larger more uniform
crystals.
5. Gnesis: Rock resulting from the exposure of
clastic sedimentary or intrusive igneous rocks
to heat and pressure.
Rock composition
Thermodynamics of metamorphic assemblages
1. The number of mineral phases that can
coexist stably in a metamorphic rock at a
particular set of pressure-temperature
conditions is given by the Gibbs phase rule.
2. A typical pelitic rock made up of the six
chemical components silica, aluminum oxide,
ferrous oxide, magnesium oxide, potash, and
water would contain no more than six
minerals; the identity of those minerals would
be controlled by the pressure and
temperature at which recrystallization occurred.
3. The process of chemical mixing is referred to
as metasomatism.
Distribution metamorphic rocks
The central and often dominant feature of most
continents is their vast Precambrian-shield
area; examples include the Canadian Shield,
Brazilian Shield, African Shield, and Australian
Shield. They consist of vast areas of granitic or
granodioritic gneisses. Inside them, between
them, and overlapping onto them are belts of
sedimentary rocks. These rocks are frequently
metamorphosed in the greenschist, amphibolite,
and granulite facies. The Caledonian orogeny
(at the close of the Silurian Period) produced
tectonic metamorphic events along the east coast
of North America. Greenland, the British Isles,
Fennoscandia, Central Asia, and Australia. The
Hercynian, or Variscan, orogeny followed about 300
million years ago, affecting subparallel
regions and the Urals and European Alps. The rock
cycle: It reflects the basic relationships
among igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks.
Erosion includes weathering (the physical and
chemical breakdown of minerals) and
transportation to a site of deposition. Diagenesis is
the process of forming sedimentary rock by
compaction and natural cementation of grains, or
crystallization from water or solutions, or
recrystallization. The conversion of sediment to rock
is termed lithification.

Anything above,600 m (2000 ft) can be
regarded as amount mountain. Hill is smaller
than
mountain but no specific definition for absolute
elevation. A mountain may have several forms:
Mountain ridge: It is a system of long, narrow
and high hills. Generally, the slope of one side of
a ridge is steep while the other side is of
moderate slope but a ridge may also have
symmetrical
slopes on both the sides.
Mountain range: It is a system of mountains
and hills having several ridges, peaks, summits
and
valleys. Mountain chain: It consists of several
parallel long and narrow mountains of different
periods.
Mountain system: It consists of different
mountain ranges of the same period. Different
mountain ranges are separated by valleys.
Mountain group: It consists of several
unsystematic patterns of different mountain
systems.
Cordillera: It is a community of mountains
having different ridges, ranges, mountain
chains and
mountain systems. The mountainous region of
the western part of North America is the best
example of a Cordillera.
Classification of Mountains
(1) On the basis of HEIGHT:
1. Low mountains: height ranges between 700-
1000m;
2. Rough mountains: height - 1000m-1500m;
3. Rugged mountains: height - 1500-2000m;
4. High mountains: height above 2000m.
(2) On the basis of Location
(i) Continental mountains
(a) Coastal mountains: Examples are - Appalachians
Rockies, Alpine mountain chains, Western
and Eastern Ghats of India, etc.
(b) Inland mountains: Examples are - Ural mountains
(Russia), Vosges and Black forest block
mountains (Europe),
i. Block mountains: These are originated by tensile
forces leading to the formation of rift valleys.
They are also called as horst mountains.
ii. Dome mountains: These are originated by
magmatic intrusions and upwarping of the crustal
Mountains
surface. Examples are: normal domes, lava domes,
batholithic domes, laccolithic domes, salt
domes.
iii. Mountains of Accumulations: These are formed due
to accumulation of volcanic materials.
Different types of volcanic cones (e.g., cinder cones,
composite cones, basic lava cones, etc.)
come under this category.
(ii) Circum-erosional or Relict mountains: Examples are-
Vindhyachal ranges, Aravallis,
Satpura, Eastern ghats, Western ghats, etc. (all from
India).
(3) On the basis of Period Of Origin:
1. Pre-Cambrian mountains: Examples are -Laurentian
mountains, Algoman mountains,
Kilarnean mountains, etc. (North America), mountains of
Feno-Scandia, Northwest
highlands and Anglessey, etc. (Europe).
2. Caledonian mountains: These are the mountains
formed during Silurian and Devonian
periods. Examples are - Taonic mountains of the
Appalachian system, mountains of
Scotland, Ireland and Scandinavia (Europe), Brazi-lides of
South America, Aravallis,
Mahadeo, Satpura, etc. of India.
3. Hercynian mountains: These are the mountains
formed during Permsari and
Permocarboniferous periods. Examples are - mountains
of Iberian peninsula, Ireland,
Spanish Messeta, Brittany of France, South Wales,
Cornwall Mendips, Paris basin, Belgian
coalfields, Rhine Mass, Bohemian plateau, Vosges and
Black forest, Frankenn Hartz
mountain, Donbas coalfield (all in Europe), Varsican
mountains of Asia include Altai,
Sayan, Baikal Arcs, Tien Shan, Khingan, Tarim basin,
Nanshan Alai and Trans Alai
mountains of Amur basin. North American Variscan
mountains include Applachians;
South American Variscan mountains are Austrian and
Saalia folds of San Juan and
Mendoza, mountains of Puna are of Atacama,
Gondwanides of Argentina
4. Alpine mountains: These are the mountains formed
during tertiary period. Examples are -
Rockies (North America), Andes (South America), Alpine
mountain systems of Europe
(mainly Carpathians, Pyrenees, Dinaric, Alps, etc.), Atlas
mountains of north-west Africa;
Himalayas and mountains coming out of Pamir Knot of
Asia (Taurus, Pauntic, Zagros,
Elburz, Kunlun, etc.). Atlas mountains of north-west of
Africa.
 Block Mountains
1. Motored by endogenetic forces coming from
within the earth. Block mountains are
basically of two types, e.g.:
a. tilled block mountains having one steep side
represented by fault scarp and one
gentle side, and,
b. lifted block mountains represent real horst
and are characterized by flattened
summit of tabular shape and very steep side
slopes represented by two boundary
fault scarps. Block mountains are also called as
horst mountains.
2. Block mountains are found in all the
continents, for example: young block mountains
around Albert Warner,
3. P Klamath lakes in the Steens mountain
district of South Oregon, Wasatch range in Utah
province, etc. in USA. Vosges and Black forest
mountains bordering the faulted Rhine rift
valley in Europe. Salt range of Pakistan, etc.
Sierra Navada mountain of California (USA)
is considered to be the most extensive block
mountain of the world and movement of side
blocks.

Discussions & Questions

1) Is it due to the revolution of
earth on its tilted axis that
causes variation of the length of
daytime and nighttime form
season to season? 2)Reason for
jet flying in lower
stratosphere? ( - sa...@ on 13-
May-2015)
Folded mountains are formed due to folding of
crustal rocks by compressive forces generated
by
endogenetic forces coming from within the
earth. Its features
They are found in great height;
Highest and extensive;
The width is less than height;
Arrow-like shape;
Faults are common cause of mountain uplift
and faults in turn are due to shrinking of the
crust;
Fossilsare being found;
Highest peaks are found in folded mountains;
Folded mountains are the youngest on the
surface of the earth;
Basically found in the form of sedimentary
rocks;
Have been Phanerozoic formed in long and
shallow seas: Geosyncline; (k)Are generally
formed in arc shape having one side concave
slope and the other convex slope;
Are found along the Archean margins of the
continents facing ocean; Young Fold
Mountains:
Himalayas, Alps, Rockies, Andes
Old Fold Mountains
Pennines, Appalachians, Cape Ranges of South
Africa, Great Dividing Ranges of A-ustralia.
Oldest: Scotland, Norway. Asia: Himalayas (8848 m);
Arakana Yoma; Sulaiman; Hindukush;
Zagros; Elburz; Pontus; Taurus; Kunlun; Karakoram
(8611 m). Europe: Caucasus (5630m);
Balkan; Carpethian; Alps (4810m); Dinaric Alps;
mass by a few 100 m., for eg., Western Patlands of
Ranchi and Palamu (India)-Jharkhand;
Due to the deposition of the lava (volcanic), e.g.,
Dexcan trap, Entream of Ireland Columbian
plateau (USA), Mahabalsstuvar and Panch gani. It is
formed due to depo sition of basaltic
lava;
Due to the adjoining areas which are not folded, but
are raised during the process of
mountain building, eg., Cumber-land plateau to the
west of Apalachian mountains;
Because of the marginal sediment of geo-syncline
are folded into parallel ranges, eg., Tibetan
plateau between Kunlun and Tienshan, and
Himalayas, Iranian plateau between Zagros and
Folded Mountains
Elbruz mountains, Anatolian plateau between
Pontus and Taurus mountains (Turkey);
Erosional or dissected plateau: thick deposits of
loose materials of wind also form plateau.
Loess plateau of China is the best example.
Classification of plateaus: There are ten types of
plateaus. According to mode of origin: Simple
plateau & complex plateau
Plateaus formed by exogenetic factor
It is of three types:
Glacial plateau: Examples are - Garhwal
plateau, Greenland plateau, Marg of Kashmir;
Aeolian plateau: Examples are - Potwar (Pak)
and Loess (China) plateaus
Fluvial plateau: It is formed due to the rivers.
Examples are - Bhandar, Kashmir, Rewa,
Rohtas
and Panna plateaus;
Plateaus formed by endogenetic factors
It is of the following types:
Intermontane plateau: Features of these plateau
are: -Highest and most extensive plateau on
the globe; -It is caused by upwarping of the
middle portion of geosyn-cline, known as
median
mass; Example:Tibetan plateau: highest (5000
m) and most extensive (20,64,000 sq.km.)
plateau of the world. It is also called the 'roof of
the world'. It is surrounded by: -Kunlun
mountain: North -Himalayas: South -Kunlun
and Himalayas: West -Chinese mountain: East
Many rivers originate from this plateau in
different directions: -Southern plateau region:
Indus
and Brahmaputra rivers; -Eastern plateau
region: Hwangho, Yangtze, Salween and
Mekong
rivers; -Northeast plateau region: Tsaidan
swamps. [NOTE: The endogenetic forces cause
high
mountains than exogenetic forces.] Mexican
plateau: It is surrounded; by: West: Sierra
Madre
Occidental Mt. range; East: Sierra Madre
Oriental Mt. range; The average height near
Mexico
city is 2250 m (7410 ft.) and decreases to 1216
m. (4000 ft.) near the international border with
USA. Plateau of Bolivia and Peru (South
America): The Peruvian plateau is surrounded

6 Agents
Weathering & Erosion Weathering is
the process where rock is run, worn away
or broken down into smaller and smaller
pieces.
Once the rock has been weakened and broken up by
weathering it is ready for erosion.
Weathering & Erosion-3 Types and
Chemical Weathering
Oxidation Reduction Carbonation Cation
Exchange Chelation Hydrolysis Hydration
Dissolution
Erosion When rocks and sediments are
picked up and moved to another place by
ice, water, wind or gravity at that time
erosion happened. Water Ice Wave Wind
Bio Gravity

Biotic & Biochemical Weathering

Biological weathering is the weakening
and consequent disintegration of rock by
plants, animals and microbes. It can work
hand in hand with physical weathering by
weakening rock or uncovering it to the
forces of weathering of physical or
chemical. Plants Bacteria Animals
Anthropogenic
Physical Weathering

Physical Weathering