Math Review and the Equations

of Motion
ATMS-303
Fall 2010
Atmospheric Variables
Most atmospheric variables (temperature,
pressure, moisture, etc) vary in all three spatial
dimensions (x, y, z) and time (t)
Example: Temperature
◦ We write this as T(x, y, z, t)
◦ Or T(x, y, p, t) if pressure is vertical coordinate
Cannot be treated as a constant in differentiation
or integration unless simplifying assumptions are
made
◦ Variables assumed constant in one more directions or
in time
Example: Temperature (x, y)

y X
Example: Temperature (z)

z
Example: Temperature (t)

Time
Differentiation
We can differentiate these variables with
respect to (w.r.t.) x, y, z, or t
A partial derivative expresses how T
changes in one dimension with all other
dimensions kept constant
Written as
T T T T
x y z t
Example: Temperature (x, y)

T

x: y, z, t remain
T T constant
y x
◦ How temperature
changes in x direction
only
T

y
: x, z, t remain
constant
Time Derivatives
T
Partial derivative
t :
◦ Keep x, y, z constant
◦ How does temperature change at a fixed point?
◦ Also called Eulerian derivative
But what if you are moving?
◦ Example: Driving from Champaign to Chicago
◦ Temperature can change due to weather, solar
T
heating, etc t
◦ Also expect temperature change between
T
Champaign and Chicago at any fixed time y
Total Time Derivative
Must use total time derivative to express time rate
of change of temperature following a moving
object
◦ Examples: AdT
car, an DT
air parcel
Written dt Dt
as or
Expressed
dT T as
T T T
 u v w
dt t x y z

u,v, w are components of velocity vector

Remember, the total derivative is w.r.t. time only!
Also called Lagrangian derivative
Chain Rule
Remember to apply the chain rule (product
rule) when differentiating products of variables
Example: Take z-derivative of Ideal Gas Law

 p     RT 
z z
p  T
 RT  R
z z z
Often simplify this be assuming that density is
constant
◦ Called incompressibility or Boussinesq
Approximation
Vectors
Vectors define quantities that have both magnitude and
direction
Example: Position (x, y, z)
◦ x = East-west (zonal) direction
◦ y = North-south (meridional) direction
◦ z = Up-down (vertical) direction
Example: Velocity (u, v, w)
◦ u = Zonal velocity
◦ v = Meridional velocity
◦ w = Vertical velocity
Scalar: A quantity with magnitude but no direction
◦ Examples: Pressure, temperature, moisture
Vector Magnitude
For any vector a, its magnitude is given by

a  a1  a2  a3
2 2 2

Can calculate direction of 2-D vectors with inverse

tangent function
Be careful of signs and angles
◦ Draw it out
◦ Tangent has period of 180°
◦ Wind direction is direction wind is blowing from
Canalso obtain x and y components of vectors given
magnitude and angle
Adding or Subtracting Vectors
Add vectors “head to tail”
Must split vectors into components
◦ x, y, z, components
◦ Add components if pointing in same direction
◦ Subtract components if pointing in opposite
directions
Unit Vectors
Often use unit vectors (i, j, k) to denote
direction
◦ i = x direction
◦ j = y direction
◦ k = z direction
Magnitudes of unit vectors are one, so
they do not affect magnitude
Example: Velocity vector
 ˆ ˆ
v  ui  vj  wkˆ
Dot Product
Consider two vectors a and b

a  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj  a3kˆ

b  b1iˆ  b2 ˆj  b3 kˆ
Can
 define dot product a•b as

a  b  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3
Result is scalar
◦ Dot product of a unit vector with itself is one
Dot product of two perpendicular vectors is
always zero. Why?
Dot Product
The dot product is also given by
  
a  b  a b cos 
Note: a is angle between two vectors
Note: A scalar times a vector is just the
scalar times each component of the vector
Cross Product
Consider two vectors a and b

a  a1iˆ  a2 ˆj  a3 kˆ

b  b1iˆ  b2 ˆj  b3 kˆ
Can define cross product a x b as

a  b  (a2b3  a3b2 )iˆ  (a3b1  a1b3 ) ˆj  (a1b2  a2b1 )kˆ
Result is a vector
Cross product of two parallel vectors is always zero
Cross product of any two vectors is always
perpendicular to both vectors
Remember right-hand rule!
Cross Product
Easy way to remember: 3 x 3 determinant!
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
a  b  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Can write first two columns to right of
third
Down and right  Positive
Down and left  Negative
Vector Differentiation
To differentiate a vector, take the
appropriate derivative of each component:


v u ˆ v ˆ w ˆ
 i j k
x x x x
Remember, unit vectors are constant
The Del Operator ∆Gradient
The vector operator ∆is defined by
 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
 i j k
x y z
This is an operator; it has no value (just
like differentials (d/dt)
Gradient:
◦ Del operator applied to a scalar
◦ Result is always a vector, directed
perpendicular to
Tisopleths
T ˆ toward
T ˆ higher
T  ˆ
i j k
values x y z
The Del Operator ∆Gradient
The Del Operator ∆Divergence
Divergence:
◦ Del operator applied to a vector
◦ Result is always a scalar
 u v w
v   
x y z
The divergence of the wind field yields a
scalar known as the divergence
◦ Note: Divergence = -1 x Convergence
Important: The del operator is
distributive, but not commutative
The Total Derivative
Recall that the total derivative is
dT T T T T
 u v w
dt t x y z
Can rewrite this using the dot product and
del operators as  
dT T  dv v  
  v  T   v  v
dt t dt t
Can think of “v dot del” as operator:
   
v   u  v  w
x y z
◦ Not equal to divergence!
Advection
Advection – The transport of a quantity by
the wind
◦ If the wind is zero, advection is zero
◦ If the spatial derivative is zero, advection is zero
Advection = v   u   v   w 
x y z
Moisture advection =  q q q
v  q  u  v  w
x y z
Advection in x direction = q
u
x
Total time derivative = Local time
derivative + Advection
The Laplacian ∆ 2
Two consecutive applications of the del
operator
Scalars: The divergence of the gradient
◦ Always returns a scalar
 2
T  2
T  2
T
 2T  2  2  2
x y z

Vectors: The gradient of the divergence

◦ Always returns a vector
   u v w  ˆ   u v w  ˆ   u v w  ˆ
 v    
2
i      j     k
x  x y z  y  x y z  z  x y z 
The Del Operator ∆Curl
Curl:
◦ Del operator crossed with a vector
◦ Result is always a vector
◦ Called curl because it is related to the rotation of vector
field
◦ If rotation is zero, curl is zero
Curl is not commutative
The curl of the wind field yields a vector called the
vorticity
This vector field (vorticity) is perpendicular to the
velocity field at every point in space
The Del Operator ∆Curl
iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
v 
x y z
u v w
Written out this is
  w v  ˆ  u w  ˆ  v u  ˆ
  v    i     j    k
 y z   z x   x y 
Momentum Equation: Vector Form
 
dv 1 ˆ  ˆ
   p  f ( k  v )  gk  F
dt 
LHS: Acceleration of wind
RHS1: Pressure gradient
RHS2: Coriolis acceleration
RHS3: Gravity
RHS4: Friction

RHS is the four fundamental forces at work in

the atmosphere
Momentum Equations: Component Form
du 1 p u  1 p
  fv  Fx   v  u   fv  Fx
dt  x t  x
dv 1 p v  1 p
  fu  Fy   v  v   fu  Fy
dt  y t  y
dw 1 p w  1 p
  g  Fz   v  w   g  Fz
dt  z t  z
Coriolis parameter: f  2 sin   104 s -1
F = friction
p = pressure
r = density
g = gravity
The Four Forces
Pressure gradient force (PGF)
Coriolis force
◦ Apparent force due to rotation of earth
Friction
Gravity

Note: Centripetal force is not a unique force. It

is the force needed for an object to move in a
circular path. The force must be supplied by a
physical force.
Pressure Gradient Force
Pressuregradient force always directed
perpendicular to isobars toward lower pressure
◦ Why? Negative sign
Units
Air molecules want to flow from where there
is greater pressure to where there is less
pressure
◦ Nature abhors a vacuum!
Increasing the pressure gradient yields dv/dt
>0 and faster flow
Pressure Gradient Force
Pressure Gradient Force
Pressure Gradient Force
Rotation of the Earth

Viewed from North

Pole, earth appears to
rotate counter-
clockwise
Analogous to merry-
go-round
Merry-Go-Round Example
If merry-go-round is NOT moving, ball does not
appear to be deflected
If merry-go-around is moving, ball will still travel
in straight path as seen from above
Ball will appear to be deflected to its right from
rotating platform
◦ Catcher sees ball move to his left – appears to be due to
external force
◦ Catcher actually rotates to his right out of the way of
ball
Same effect occurs on rotating earth
The Coriolis Force
Coriolis Force and Latitude
The Coriolis Force
Coriolis Force – Summary
Deflects objects to the RIGHT in NH
Deflects objects to the LEFT in SH
Changes the direction, not the speed of
motion
Force is proportional to speed
Maximum at Poles, zero at Equator
◦ Distance from axis of rotation does not change at
Equator
Friction
Molecular friction
◦ Between air molecules and the earth’s surface
◦ Between air molecules (viscosity)
◦ Not very important
Eddies
◦ Small circulations that mix the effect of
friction in the atmosphere
◦ Boundary layer
Eddy Viscosity
Gravity
Force acting toward the center of the
earth
Small components in x and y directions
◦ Earth is not a perfect sphere
◦ Centrifugal force
For our purposes, treat gravity as a
constant force acting downward
◦ Vertical equation of motion only