Nuclear Energy

Introduction
One of the major requirements for
sustaining human progress is an
adequate source of energy.
The current largest sources of energy
are the combustion of coal, oil and
natural gas.
They will last quite a while but will
probably run out or become harmful
in tens to hundreds of years.
Introduction
Solar energy will also work but is not
much developed yet except for
special applications because of its
high cost. This high cost as a main
source, e.g. for central station
electricity, is likely to continue, and
nuclear energy is likely to remain
cheaper.
A major advantage of nuclear energy
(and also of solar energy) is that it
doesn't put carbon dioxide (CO2) into
the atmosphere.
Introduction
• Nuclear energy has its issues
• The disposal of nuclear wastes is a
very controversial topic
• A by-product (plutonium) can be used
to make nuclear bombs
• Public fear nuclear accidents
Theoretical Framework
Nuclear power can come from the
fission of uranium, plutonium or
thorium or the fusion of hydrogen
into helium. Today it is almost all
uranium. The basic energy fact is
that the fission of an atom of
uranium produces 10 million times
the energy produced by the
combustion of an atom of carbon
from coal.
Theoretical Framework
• A power reactor contains a core with
a large number of fuel rods. Each rod
is full of pellets of uranium oxide. An
atom of U-235 fissions when it
absorbs a neutron. The fission
produces two fission fragments and
other particles that fly off at high
velocity. When they stop the kinetic
energy is converted to heat - 10
million times as much heat as is
produced by burning an atom of the
carbon in coal
• Atom bombs (and nuclear power stations)
get their energy from fission of uranium-235
atoms. Neutrons can split uranium-235
atoms up (fission) into two smaller atoms
and release more neutrons. So one reaction
that can occur when a neutron of the right
energy splits a uranium-235 atom is:
• 1n + 235U 140Ba + 93Kr + 3 1n
• These three neutrons can go on to split
three more uranium atoms, producing nine
more neutrons; this can continue to
produce a self-sustaining chain reaction.
Nuclear Reactor
• A nuclear reactor produces and
controls the release of energy from
splitting the atoms of certain
elements.
• In a nuclear power reactor, the
energy released is used as heat to
make steam to generate electricity.
• In a research reactor the main
purpose is to utilise the actual
neutrons produced in the core.
• In most naval reactors, steam drives
a turbine directly for propulsion.)
• The principles for using nuclear
power to produce electricity are the
same for most types of reactor. The
energy released from continuous
fission of the atoms of the fuel is
harnessed as heat in either a gas or
water, and is used to produce steam.
The steam is used to drive the
turbines which produce electricity
(as in most fossil fuel plants).
There are several components
common to most types of reactors:

• Fuel. Usually pellets of uranium

oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to form
fuel rods. The rods are arranged into
fuel assemblies in the reactor core.
• Moderator. This is material which
slows down the neutrons released
from fission so that they cause more
fission. It is usually water, but may
be heavy water or graphite.
• Control rods. These are made with
neutron-absorbing material such as
cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are
inserted or withdrawn from the core
to control the rate of reaction, or to
halt it. (Secondary shutdown systems
involve adding other neutron
absorbers, usually as a fluid, to the
system.)
• Coolant. A liquid or gas circulating
through the core so as to transfer the
heat from it. In light water reactors
the moderator functions also as
coolant.
• Pressure vessel or pressure tubes.
Usually a robust steel vessel
containing the reactor core and
moderator/coolant, but it may be a
series of tubes holding the fuel and
conveying the coolant through the
moderator.
• Steam generator. Part of the cooling
system where the heat from the
reactor is used to make steam for
the turbine.
• Containment. The structure around
the reactor core which is designed to
protect it from outside intrusion and
to protect those outside from the
effects of radiation in case of any
malfunction inside. It is typically a
metre-thick concrete and steel
structure.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR
or CANDU)
Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)