Telecommunications Engineering: Engineering Studies - HSC Course, Stage 6

Telecommunications
Engineering
Engineering Studies – HSC Course, Stage 6
Telecommunications Engineering
• Areas Covered:
• Scope of the profession
• Historical and societal influences
• Engineering materials
• Engineering electricity/electronics
• Communication
Scope of the Profession
• General engineering areas that a telecommunications engineer could
be involved in;
• Transmission media – the material or media in which the signals are carried or
transmitted.
• Transmission and receiving equipment – the equipment which actually
converts and transmits the telecommunications signals
• Transmission technology – the method and protocols by which the signals are
encoded and decoded
• Switching systems – the method of connecting and recording the connection
of one piece of terminal equipment to another.
• Health and Safety Issues
• When dealing with communication systems, engineers are working with
electricity and the electromagnetic and light spectrum, each of these can
pose a health and safety risk.
• When working with electricity, the danger of shock is always present.
• Our skin provides our body with some protection against electric shock,
withstanding up to 50 Volts.
• But the danger is in the available current. Our body acts as a large resistor
continually drawing current, creating resistance and generating heat…
• Eventually to the point of death
• When dealing with electricity it is always best to work with the power off, all
available earths to be grounded and use of appropriate tools and safety
equipment.
• Electromagnetic radiation at certain frequencies can be harmful to living
organisms at high amplitudes.
• For instance the 2.4GHz range is what is used in a microwave oven to heat food using
very high amplitudes, this same frequency band is what is used in most WiFi data and
Bluetooth communications.
• The light spectrum is also commonly used in telecommunications systems.
• Again under higher amplitudes, the light can cause harm to living organisms.
• Fibre optic cables use some light frequencies in the visual light spectrum, if a
fibre optic cable was in use and a person looked into it damage to the retina
could occur.
• If we get a chance to play with some electronics and digital logic circuitry;
• The power will be off at all times when building or modifying the circuit,
• All chips will be grounded,
• Power supply will be limited to a safe working voltage.
• All circuits will be inspected prior the power up & testing.
• Training for the Profession & Career Prospects
• Bachelor of Engineering - Telecommunications Engineering
• Telecommunications engineering deals with large-scale data networks, such as the internet
and other devices and systems that represent, store and transmit analog and digital
information.
• This includes data transmission, equipment, customer access technology, analog and digital
radio and television systems, satellite communications, global navigation, mobile
communications and remote sensing/telemetry systems.
• Bachelor of Engineering - Computer Engineering
• Computer engineers design computers and/or computer systems, hardware and software to
control sensors, embedded devices and manufacturing or industrial plants.
• This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but
how they integrate into the larger picture.
• Computer engineers can choose to work in many areas such as networking, control and
automation, multimedia, image processing, machine vision and intelligent systems
• Relations with the Community
• Telecommunications infrastructure and devices are design, developed and
maintained by Engineers,
• Australia has a large and complex network infrastructure from line phones
and cabled Internet access to advanced mobile and data networks.
• We have a strong expectation that these services be available and reliable, it
is the responsibility of the engineer to the community to ensure these
services.
• Telephone
• ISP
• Mobile Communications including Data
• Radio & Television
• Technologies Unique to the Profession
• There is a very extensive range of technologies used in Telecommunications
from wired and wireless mediums, the devices used to transmit on these
mediums and the specific technologies used in the design, development and
maintenance of telecommunications technology.
• Specific Technologies will be Further discussed in

“Historical and societal influences” including;
• Telecommunications Devices
• Current Applications and Innovations
•
• Technologies Unique to the Profession –
Telecommunications Mediums
• Cables:
• Twisted pair
• Coaxial cable
• Optical fibre
• Wireless
• Radio Transmission
• WiFi
• Satellite
• LiFi
• Cellular Phones (GSM Networks 3g 4g etc)
• Telecommunications Mediums & Devices
• Some lingo...
• Attenuation –refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal.
• Decibels (dB) - a unit to measure loudness ...
• But loudness is relative to the environment in which it is being measured
• So really its a logarithmic unit used to express the ratio of two values of a
physical quantity.
• dB = 10 x log (gain or loss)
Quick Lachlan write down the formula, Yes Riley its on Google, No Bailey its not a timber log, Yes Damo you can be a lumber jack
when you grow up.
• Bandwidth – that range of signal variations in a carrier frequency band to represent data
units.
• Baseband – the frequencies at which a signal is generated.
• Modulation – varying properties of a wave form to represent a data symbol.
• Telecommunications Mediums - Cables: Twisted Pair
• Twisted pair is the most common transmission medium in wired communication
systems. (LAN, Phone lines etc.)
• Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are
twisted together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from external sources.
• Two types: UTP and STP
• Shielded Twisted Pair – Has a foil like cover around the group of twisted pairs inside the group
casing.
• Unshielded Twisted Pair – No foil, just an insulating casing
• Telecommunications Mediums - Cables: Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable consists of;
• a single conductor running down the centre of the cable,
• surrounded by an insulating layer.
• Covered in a continuous conducting shield covers the cable.
• Then a protective insulating layer is placed over the shield.
• The shielding material prevents high frequency radiation from leaking from the cable.
• Coaxial cable is also used extensively in the cable television and cable internet. In
addition to use between a radio amplifier/receiver and antenna
• Coaxial cable has a high bandwidth capability compared to plain copper (twisted pair).
• Telecommunications Mediums - Cables: Optical fibre
• Optical fibre uses the internal reflection of light down a light guide to transmit signals.
• The light guide is made from a glass core enclosed in a glass cladding layer with a
different refractive index.
• Optical fibre has a much higher bandwidth than either UTP or coaxial cable.
• To develop fibre optic cable, Materials and process Engineers needed to produce highly
refined pure glass with near perfect consistency.
• Consider that the length of a cable is equivalent to the thickness of a glass window.
• In early implementations of fibre, only 1% of the full signal travelled a kilometre.
• This means that the signal attenuation was 100times.
• Calculate the line attenuation in decibels,
dB = 10 x log(gain or loss)
• In this case the loss was 100x the signal so...
• So if there is a 20dB loss in signal over such a short distance what is fibre optic “fast”???
• Also... What does fast mean?
• We all know that light travels fast, but so does electricity (same speed)
• What makes a fibre optic cable faster than a coaxial, UTP or STP?
• So if there is a 20dB loss in signal over such a short distance what is fibre optic “fast”???
• Also... What does fast mean?
• We all know that light travels fast, but so does electricity (same speed)
• What makes a fibre optic cable faster than a coaxial, UTP or STP?
• Its not actually about speed, its about bandwidth.
• The light spectrum has a wider range of baseband frequencies
• As light is a ultra high frequency it is possible to divided it into discrete carriers to
transmit a variety of data elements at once.
• This means that we can transmit more data in a shorter period of time... Thus it is
“faster”
... But by this perspective, strapping a few 256GB SD cart to a
homing pigeon is also “fast”. (rfc1149)
• Telecommunications Devices – Wireless
• Say you have a stick
• If you wind a wire around that stick, you have a coil, if you pass a current through that wire
you create a magnetic field, if you vary (or modulate) that current and voltage you will vary
(modulate) the magnetic field emitted...
• If you have another stick, and wrapped wire around that second stick, you got yourself
another coil. That coil would be subject to the magnetic field produced by the first coil.
When a coil is subject to a magnetic field, current will flow in that coil proportional to
the magnetic field, which could be fluctuating in magnitude and frequency. With a closed
circuit connected to your stick coil and a display device such as an oscilloscope or
amplified speaker the original electric signal from stick one could be observed from stick
two.
• Magic Stick!
• Telecommunications Mediums & Devices... The old wireless
• Telecommunications Devices – Modem
• Modulator – Demodulator
• A hardware device that modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital
information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted
information.
• The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce
the original digital data.
• Telecommunications Devices – Repeater
• An electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it.
• Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so that the signal can cover
longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction.
• Some types of repeaters broadcast an identical signal, but alter its method of
transmission, for example, on another frequency or baud rate.
• There are several different types of repeaters;
• a telephone repeater is an amplifier in a telephone line,
• an optical repeater is an optoelectronic circuit that amplifies the light beam in an optical
fibre cable;
• a radio repeater is a radio receiver and transmitter that retransmits a radio signal.
• Telecommunications Devices – Switch
• A digital networking device that connects devices together on a computer network, by
using packet switching to receive, process and forward data to the destination device.
• Unlike less advanced network hubs, a network switch forwards data only to one or
multiple devices that need to receive it, rather than broadcasting the same data out of
each of its ports.
• Telecommunications Devices – Router
• A digital networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
• Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
• A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks
that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node.
• Legal and Ethical Implications
• The IEEE Defines roles responsibilities and standards to be followed by Computer and
Telecommunications Engineers.
• Listed below are some selected items from IEEE’s code of professional behaviour:
• ‘To accept responsibility in making engineering decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the
public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment’
• ‘To avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected parties when
they do exist’
• ‘To improve the understanding of technology, its application , and potential consequences’
• ‘To be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data’
• ‘To reject bribery in all its forms’.
• Dealing with a breach Legal and Ethical responsibility

• Rights and responsibilities in Australia with regard to telecommunications is defined by the
Commonwealth Consolidated Acts - TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT 1997
• http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ta1997214/
• Issues that cant be resolved directly between two parties can be referred to the TIO -
Telecommunications Industry Ombudsman
• https://www.tio.com.au/
• Engineers as Managers
• Managers of the design process
• Managers of the support and ongoing maintenance of the network
infrastructure.
• Current Applications and Innovations
• It makes more sense to cover this after Historical and Social Influences…
• So lets do that.
Historical and Societal Influences
• In this section we will look at the historical development within the
telecommunications and the effect of these systems on people and
society using specific examples such as;
• Telegraphy and Telephone
• Television and Radio
• Mobile Communications
• Satellite Systems
• Digital Networks
• Early telecommunications
• Smoke signals, drums & flare fires.
• Semaphore
• First electrical telecommunication in 1726 [FAIL]
• Successful methods did not emerge until the 1830s.
• Early telecommunications
• Telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both
sender and receiver.
• Such methods are designed according to the limits of the signalling medium used.
• The use of smoke signals, beacons, reflected light signals, and flag semaphore signals are early
examples
• Morse developed the Morse Code encoding method
• A series of dots and dashes or short and long tones in groups of three to represent characters of
the alphabet.
• Morse Electrical Telegraph was first demonstrated in 1837, proving to be so successful it was
implemented across the USA.
• A submarine cable was even laid across the English channel, this wire was copper coated in natural
latex,
• In 1858 a transatlantic cable was laid, again made of a copper core coated in natural latex.
• It functioned for several weeks before failing.
• Re-laid successfully in 1866
• Telephone
• Arguably invented by Alexander Bell,
• There where many inventors and scientists working on the
transmission of voice over wire at the time.
• Two big players: Alexander G. Bell & Gardiner G. Hubbard
• They had the patents to the ‘general’ idea of the now considered
simple technology, so they win.
• The first commercial telephone services were set up in 1878 and
1879 in the US, England & Western Europe
• Inter-city lines were built with telephone exchanges in every major
city of the US
• Telephone
• Use analog signals to transmit voice, simply a mildly amplified electric signal directly
proportional to the users voice.
• In the early days of telephone networks, phones were connected to directly to an
exchange as they are now. However, an operator would physically patch the call through
to the other phone.
• With advances in electronics, this process was automated through analog switching
based on the tones received on the line.
• Each numeric digit corresponds to a tone, the phone switch detects the tone, then switches
the physical line connection to the recipient.
• Integrated Services Digital Network
• Introduction of digital networks and packet switching
• This method is still in use (where NBN has not been installed)
• The connection from the home to the exchange is still an analog transmission over a UTP
medium.
• However, the connection between the exchanges is a digital packet switched network over a
high bandwidth medium.
• This also enabled the introduction of digital communications from the home to the outside
world (Te Internets).
• Modern Telephone Networks
• Integrated Services Digital Network
• UTP from exchange to Home
• Internet Access: Dial up, ADSL 1, ADSL2+
• Voice communications
• Fibre optic between exchanges.
• Frequency Modulation
• Basebands are divided within the assigned frequency range from 88MHz to 108MHz.
• This is the frequency you see on your radio receiver.
• Within the baseband the Analogy data is transmitted by modulation of the frequency.
• Amplitude Modulation
• Basebands are divided within the assigned frequency range from 535KHz to 1605 kHz.
• Again, This is the frequency you see on your radio receiver.
• Within the baseband the Analogy data is transmitted by modulation of the amplitude.
• Within the baseband, the Radio wave is the exact form of the sound wave.
• This was the first method of radio communications used.
• Lower frequency radio waves like those used in AM/FM transmissions travel in strait
lines, however, can bounce off objects and the earths ionosphere.
• Long wave communications can communicate long distances around the world and even
through water!
• Television & Television Transmission
• Analog television system began as black-and-white systems and were a form of AM
encoding in the VHF spectrum,
• The advantage was this particular method had a small baseband allowing for more channels.
• Broadcasting evolved to use more of the baseband in order to transmit additional
information (Colour).
• As time went on a shift (or extension) to the use of UHF occurred, the higher frequency
enabled the use of a wider baseband with a large number of channels.
• Television Transmission
• As the analog camera detected light and converted it an electronic signal.
• This signal was modulated with the audio signal received by the microphone onto a
baseband frequency in the UHF spectrum.
• This signal was transmitted at a high amplitude from a broadcast station to be picked up
by the home external antenna.
• The antenna may be connected to an amplifier before being demodulated by the TV
receiver.
• Modern TV and Radio
• Digital transmissions
• In Sraya we still transmit AM & FM radio in addition to digital radio, however all analog TV has
stoped
• All TV broadcasting in Straya is Digital only
• What are the benefits?
• What is the key differences.
• TV – Here is something the syllabus actually specifies which is so
outdated you guy may not even know what a CRT is or looks like 
• Cathode Ray Tube
• (or T for Television if your BOSTES, They didn’t even get the acronym
right)
• Uses an electron beam fired at a phosphorus plate to illuminate
the colour components of a pixel,
• The beam was controlled by magnets (cause electrons are
effected by magnetic fields)
• The longer the beam was fired at a pixel colour element the more
intense the brightness of that colour
• The beam cycled through from top to bottom, refreshing alternate
rows at a time (interlaced image)
•
• Mobile (telephone) Communications
• In Australian, and most other countries the GSM protocols are used for
mobile phone communications.
• Global System for Mobile Communications
• The first standard for GSM was the 900MHz
• The second standard used in conjunction with the first was in the 1800MHz
band
• 3g  2100MHz or 2.1GHz
• 4g  2600MHz or 2.6GHz
• 5g  15GHz
• Note that these frequency basebands are a guide only. Different countries
specify different standards under their own legislation.
• If 4G operates at a comparable baseband frequency to WiFi, why isn’t it as “fast”?
• Mobile (telephone) Communications
• Cellular Networks
• Called Cellular, as transmission ranges for an area are
broken into “cells”
• If one tower was used to supply a large area, it would
be overwhelmed with data and require enormous
transmission amplitude to reach that wide range.
• Each tower supplies reception to a cell region.
• The towers operate on low power outputs so that the
operating frequencies can be re-used at other
locations.
• When a subscriber moves from one cell to the next the
call is simply transferred or ‘handed on’ to the base
station associated with the next cell.
• A satellite is a device which has been placed into the earths orbit.
• As the higher frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum can only travel in
a straight line, these frequencies can not be used over great distances
(terrain, curvature of the earth etc.)
• Solution, stick a sender/receiver up in the sky...
• Communications satellites are positioned in a Geo-synchronous orbit
• This means that their orbital speed is proportional to the rotation of the earth so that it
orbits the earth in the same time as the earth rotates.
• Geo-stationary
• A type of geo-synchronisation
• Maintain their position in reference to a geographic location of earths surface.
• Geo-stationary Communication Satellites
• Stationed approximately 37200Km from the earths surface (3 x 108 m/s).
• Given that radio waves travel at the speed of light, how long does it take a transmission
to reach a satellite from the earths surface?
• Satellite enables communication to any geographic location on earth, but it isn’t fast.
• Communication “Speed” Vs Bandwidth
• Speed is usually measured with a ping, this is the sending of a single signal and
measuring the time it takes to reach the destination.
• What are satellites good for and what applications would we rather use something else?
• Low Earth Orbit Satellites
• Are as close a 160 Km to the earths surface,
• What foreseeable benefit could this have?
• Are as close a 160 Km to the earths surface,
• What foreseeable benefit could this have?
• Much shorter latency (faster ping), proving to be far more appropriate to a wider range
of telecommunications systems.
• They are also cheaper to build and launch... So that's a bonus 
• It doesn't need to be launched as far into space,
• It doesn't need to transmit/receive a signal over such a massive distance.
• Down sides,
• Orbital decay
• Orbital speed
• Down sides,
• Orbital decay,
• These satellites may need more regular replacement than geo-synchronous satellites
• Orbital speed
• As they are lower they need to travel at a higher speed to avoid orbital decay.
• This means that they will only be able to service a single location for a short period of
time,
• Solution... Use a heap..
• Groups of LEO satellites (called constellations)
take turns providing communications.
• Digital (Computer) Networks
• Commuters connect together using a variety of mediums and transmitting
devices.
• The was in which they communicate is defined by protocols at each level of
the connection;
• Modulation at the physical level
• Communication of symbols over that physical level (Ethernet)
• Addressing and control (IP – TCP & UDP)
• Application use (HTTP)
• Wireless Technology: Wi-Fi & Bluetooth
• Operates in the 2.4GHz and 5GHz spectrums,
• Each spectrum, like radio is broken into bands or channels, those channels are then
broken into basebands for transmission on that channel.
• Each channels centre frequency is 5MHz apart and overlaps with between 2 and 4 other
channels (potential interference and noise).
• Which one has the potential to be “faster” (have a higher bandwidth) and why?
• Wireless Technology: LiFi
• A new experimental technology using the visual light spectrum in the transference of
digital data.
• Again as the light spectrum can be broken into more basebands and channels, a higher
bandwidth can be achieved.
• The technology works by transmitters being installed around the room and in the access
device.
• The light signal is modulated so fast that humans can not see and change in the visual
light output.
• Has a theoretical ma speed of up to 224 Gbps
• Future Telecommunications (in Aus) – the NBN architecture
• Early Internet Access: Dialup
• Use of the audible electromagnetic spectrum over UTP phone lines to the exchange, then
coaxial backbone infrastructure.
• Modern Internet Access: ADSL
• Use of the super sonic electromagnetic spectrum over UTP phone lines to the exchange, then
a backbone infrastructure primarily fibre optic, but possibly coaxial for some areas.
• The use of hire frequencies enabled more bandwidth as frequency modulation was achieved
in smaller discreet frequency ranges.
• Early stages NBN – Fibre to the home
• Use of fibre everywhere $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ this is not engineering a solution, its just
installing the biggest best thing available at the time.
• Late stage NBN – Fibre to the curb, STP/Coaxial to the home
• Any Better ideas?
Engineering Materials
• Specialised Testing – voltage, current, insulation
• In the application of telecommunications we require
a signal (voltage & current) to travel a long distance
with minimal interference.
• To achieve this we require;
• high conductive properties for our transmitter core.
• Remember that resistance in our cable is proportional to its
cross section area and the length of the cable,
• Basically there will be resistance and thus signal loss
over a distance in a cable of some thickness.
• Resistance = resistivity × length / area
• An effective insulator to protect the core from leakage and
interference.
• Voltage Testing
• The difference in electrical potential energy between two points is known as
the voltage.
• The voltage between the ends of a conductor governs the size of the current
flowing through the conductor.
• This is also known as the ‘electromotive force’ that drives electricity in a
circuit.
• Voltage (V) is measured by a voltmeter and this meter is placed parallel to the
component that it is measuring
• Voltage Testing
• A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is
one of the most important
measuring instruments used in
electronics & communications.
• When a DC or AC voltage is
applied to the Y-plate input, the
voltage causes the electron beam
to bend, This produces a line on
the screen.
• Current testing
• Current is basically the quantity of electrons moving from one point to another.
• Current is measured in amperes (A) and is carried by the valence electrons in
conductors with the electrons flowing from negative to positive.
• Current is measured by a simple ammeter and it is connected in series in the circuit.
• In most low voltage circuits, like in telecommunication devices, the current flow in
different parts of the circuits is very low and is normally measured in milliamperes
(mA) or microamperes (mA).
• The amount of current that flows will vary with changes in voltage
and resistance.
• This is represented by the formula that you learned during the
preliminary course:
I = V/R or V = IR
•
• Insulation Testing
• Why insulation and insulators may be important when dealing with electricity
and electronics?
• Insulation is important for:
• Protection from electrocution
• Protection from damage to wires or cables
• Reduction of energy leakage
• Reduction of interference from external sources.
• Insulation Testing - Megger testing
• Specialised non-destructive tests have been developed to assess the
condition of electrical insulation.
• The megger test will measure the:
• Relative amount of moisture in the insulation,
• Leakage current over the dirty or moist surface of the insulator
• Winding break-downs or faults as a measure of resistance vs time.
• Resistance Testing
• The insulating qualities of a material can also be simply measured by the
amount of resistance that is offered to the flow of current.
• A multimeter is most commonly used to test this resistance.
• The multimeter has an internal power source, normally a battery, and when the
resistance setting is selected on the meter, the current is ready to flow through any
object that is introduced to complete the electrical circuit. Simple resistance, on the
multimeter, is used to measure the polarity of components like diodes and transistors, to
check for faults in items like fuses and to identify the resistance in parts of complex
circuits.
Engineering Materials –
Testing Questions
1. With the aid of a sketch, describe how the voltage across a resistor,
in a circuit, would be measured.
2. What do the letters CRO stand for and what can you do with this
device?
3. What electrical properties can be measured with a multimeter?
4. List three things about insulators that can be measured using a
megger tester.
• Metals Used In Telecommunications
• What mechanical and physical properties that would be important in
telecommunications conductors?
• Low resistivity /highly conductive

• Suitable strength,
• Ductility and
• Ease of joining.
• Low resistivity;
• The lower the resistivity of a material, the smaller the amount of material that is needed to
carry current.
• Less insulating materials needed because the wires are thinner,
• Sheathing costs are lower and transport costs are lower.
• Strength;
• Wire will be pulled pushed, bent, hung and buried... So gotta be strong
• Ductility;
• To allow the material to be made into wire, it must exhibit ductility
• The material must be able to withstand the tensile stresses applied during manufacture,
extrusion of the insulation and the installation of the cable.
• Joining;
• Joining the conductors may be achieved through twisting, soldering or welding.
• Some materials are easier to join than others.
• Why metals are normally conductors and why copper is an excellent
conductor of electricity?
• The metallic bond that has the valence electrons in a cloud surrounding the ions and that
conduction is due to the migration of these electrons.
• It is these ‘free’ electrons easily transmit the ‘flow’ of current?
• Metals Used In Telecommunications - Copper
• Current flow isn’t just the movement of electrons in a simplistic linear
fashion, current moves in waves.
• Individual valence electrons move, but it is the collective group of electrons
that move in a wave like pattern.
• This wave moves best through a regular arrangement of obstacles.
• Annealed copper has a face centred cubic structure, this regular arrangement of ions in
the crystal lattice provides minimal resistance.
• What will happen to the conductivity of the copper wire as we work it?
• What about if we alloy the copper wire?
• Any amount of cold working or the introduction of alloying elements that sit in the
spaces between the ions will increase the random nature of the obstacles and will
increase the resistance of the material.
• What happens when a conductor with current passing through it begins to
heat?
• At an atomic level, the ions are vibrating (moving rapidly), this proportionally
increases the chances of flowing valance electrons hitting an ion and slowing
down.
• This explains the increase in resistivity noticed when the temperature of a
conductor is raised.
• Copper is the metal that has been traditionally used for communications
wires and cables.
• It is ductile, has suitable tensile strength and is a very satisfactory conductor.
• As a conductor it is second only to silver (3% less conductive)
• Electrolytic tough pitch copper is used for wires and this grade of copper has a
minimum copper content of 99.9 per cent with around 0.04 per cent of
oxygen in the form of an oxide.
• This level of purity is essential as the introduction of some alloying elements
or impurities can greatly reduce conductivity.
• Metals Used In Telecommunications – Copper
• Some alloying elements or impurities can greatly reduce conductivity.
• For example;
• phosphorus at 0.04 % will reduce the conductivity by 25 per cent.
• What could you suppose about the alloys structure that might cause such resistance?
• Cadmium, have little effect on the conductivity.

• The presence of cadmium, dissolved in the copper, increases both the strength and wear
resistance of the transmission cable, so it is actually a favourable alloy in this application.
• Why is it favourable to included cadmium in the copper alloy for wire at the expens of
conductivity?
• The manufacturing process used to produce copper wires could easily induce
stress and reduce the conductivity.
• To overcome this problem, the cables are cold drawn into wire then the roll of wire is
fully annealed.
• Copper is also an essential part of coaxial cables that are still widely in
telecommunications applications .
• Copper is commonly used as the conductor in wire as it is the second most
conductive element (Silver = most conductive by a little bit more)
• Copper is sometimes alloyed to achieve other characteristics.
• Non alloyed annealed copper is ductile, flexible and conductive with some but poor
resistance to corrosion and abrasion.
• International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) uses annealed copper as a standard
for comparing conductivity of coper alloys.
• At 20oC; non alloyed, annealed copper has 100% conductivity
• No it is not a superconductor! This is a benchmark standard for measuring conductivity in
coper alloys.
• As other metals/materials are added the conductivity of the alloy is altered
• In most cases: reduced.
Engineering Materials Alloy
Coppers
Electrolytic (ETP)
% IACS
101
Silver-bearing, 8 oz/t 101
Silver-bearing, 10 to 15 oz/t 101
Silver-bearing, 25 to 30 oz/t 101
Oxygen-free (OF) 101
Phosphorized (DLP) 97 to 100
Free-cutting (S, Te or Pb) 90 to 98
Chromium coppers 80 to 90
Phosphorized (DHP) 80 to 90
Cadmium copper (1%) 80 to 90
Tellurium-nickel copper 50
Copper Alloys
Brasses 25 to 50
Phosphor bronze E 25 to 50
Naval brass 25 to 50
Admiralty 25 to 50
Phosphor bronze A, C, D 10 to 20
Aluminum bronze, 5% 10 to 20
Silicon bronze B 10 to 20
Beryllium copper 10 to 20
Cupro-nickel, 30% 5 to 15
Nickel silver 5 to 15
Aluminum bronze (over 5% Al) 5 to 15
Silicon bronze A 5 to 15
• Metals Used In Telecommunications – Aluminium
• Aluminium has three advantages over copper when used as conducting wires.
• It is lighter, less expensive (except in 1987 - 1989) and more abundant in nature than
copper.
• With a density of only 2.7g/cm , compared to 9g/cm for copper,
3 3
• Aluminium is specially suitable for aerial power transmission cables.

• Only half the quantity of aluminium, by weight, is needed for conductors with
the same resistance.
• However, it does not conduct as well as copper (only about 60 per cent of the
conductivity of copper) so larger diameter cables are needed.
• The larger amount of insulation sheathing needed offsets some of the savings
made on the conductor material.
• Aluminium has some inferior properties to those of copper.
• These include marginally poorer ductility, tensile strength, jointing properties
and corrosion resistance.
• This fact has retarded aluminium’s general use in communication cables.
• However is widely used for transmission antennae.
• Aluminium alloys are sometimes used for cables.
• A common alloy contains 0.5 per cent iron and 0.5 per cent cobalt.
• These alloying elements distort the normal aluminium structure and while
this increases the strength of the cable, the conductivity is reduced.
• Metals Used In Telecommunications – Gold
• The conductivity of gold is slightly less than that of copper...
• Why Use it?
• The gold is ductile, doesn’t oxidise and bonds easily to other metals such as
aluminium and copper.
• It is used for the linkage ‘wires’ in some semiconductor devices.
• It is suitable for this application because while it is very expensive, only small
quantities are used in these miniature circuits.
• Metals Used In Telecommunications – Lead
• The outer layer on telecommunications cables is known as the sheath and is
designed to create a stable environment for the cable core.
• Lead was once used extensively as it has good corrosion resistance, adequate
strength and flexibility and is easy to join.
• It has been replaced with polymers because lead suffers from fatigue failures,
is heavy and is relatively expensive.
• Lead alloys containing antimony and tin were used to reduce fatigue failures.
• Still used in electrical joinery as a majority component of soldering alloys.
Metals Questions
1. In terms of the properties of copper, give three reasons why it is
used extensively for electrical wires and cables.
2. Why is gold often used for contacts in telecommunication devices?
3. Aluminium is also used for electrical cables. Give some advantages
and disadvantages of aluminium as compared to copper.
• Insulation Materials – Ceramics
• Ceramics contain both metal and non-metal phases.
• They often contain both ionic and covalent bonds and that both these types of
primary bonds do not have free valence electrons to allow for the ’flow’ of electrons.
• In insulating materials, there is a large gap between the full valence band and the
next electron energy level.
• For an electron to be free to transmit a current, it must move up to this next energy
level.
• Under normal conditions, the gap is so large that electrons are unable to cross.
• At high temperatures there is a greater chance that an occasional electron will possess the
energy needed to cross the gap and allow some conduction.
• In ionically bonded materials, ions may migrate, rather than electrons.
• This will provide a small degree of conductivity.
• At elevated temperatures, ions can become more mobile and conductivity
may increase.
• Very high voltages may cause the break-down of some insulators.
• This occurs because the electric field is sufficient to raise the energy of some
electrons and ‘free’ them across the gap allowing electron flow.
• Surface breakdown is more common and the presence of moisture or
accumulation of dirt may allow conduction.
• The glazing of ceramic insulators helps eliminate moisture because water runs
off easily.
• It also is less susceptible to dirt build up because it is smooth.
• The use of a corrugated design greatly increases the length that the current
must travel.
• Insulation Materials – Polymers
• Why polymers are insulators?
• polymers are made from covalent bonds, thus all the valence electrons are
involved in the bond and are therefore not free to ‘transmit’ electrical
‘flow’?
• Many of the insulating materials
in personal telecommunication
devices are made from polymers.
• they are subject to low voltages
and low temperatures and are
therefore quite suitable for these
applications.
• Insulation Materials – Polymers
• As a class dismantle the telephone, draw an orthogonal drawing of the
phone and its parts, labelling the materials likely used in various parts of
the phone.
• Insulation Materials – Polymers, Polyethylene
• Polyethylene has superior insulation resistance comparing to paper, is suitable
for high frequency cables, can be accurately made to size in a variety of
colours, has good jointing properties and maintains good electrical properties
under humid conditions.
• Its main disadvantages are cost and low softening temperature.
• When used as an outer sheathing on groups of cables, polyethylene allows
water vapour to penetrate and is difficult to join.
• For these reasons it is only used for interior cables or as the outer layer on
sheaths with a wound aluminium foil inner and polyethylene outer.
• Insulation Materials – Polymers, Polyvinyl chloride
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has poorer electrical properties than either paper or
polyethylene but is tougher, withstands higher temperatures and survives
better in a fire.
• Under extreme temperatures and combustion, hydrogen chloride fumes are
liberated and may cause corrosion problems.
• It is a suitable alternative to polyethyelene.
• Insulation Materials – Polymers, Polypropylene
• Polypropylene has similar electrical properties to polyethylene but is tougher
and has a higher softening temperature.
• It is not as flexible and is more expensive than either PVC or polyethylene.
• Insulation Materials – Polymers, Nylon
• Nylon is often used as an insect resistant outer layer or sheath on cables that
are used underground.
• The hard, smooth surface of the nylon makes it difficult for an insect or
termite to grip the cable.
• Semiconductors
• Some materials are known as semiconductors because the gap between the
filled valence band and the empty conduction band is relatively small.
• Conduction can occur through two mechanisms;
• Heating for intrinsic semiconductors, and
• Doping in extrinsic semiconductors.
• Semiconductors - Intrinsic semiconductors
• Silicon and germanium are semiconductors due solely to the distribution of
electron energies within the pure material.
• When one valence electron is freed to cross the energy gap it will mean that
one atom within the crystal lattice only has three bonds.
• This gap is known as an electron hole.
• The freed bonding electrons are constantly moving and can even switch from
one atom to another.
• This movement of the electron in one direction means that the hole ‘moves’
in the opposite direction.
• This could be considered as a positively charged carrier.
• Both these movements allow the material to conduct.
• Heat may be used to provide the initial energy to free the electron.
• So, in contrast to metals, increasing the temperature of an intrinsic
semiconductor will increase conductivity.
• Semiconductors - Extrinsic semiconductors
• Silicon and germanium have four outer shell electrons per atom
• If an ‘impurity’ element, that only has three outer electrons is introduced,
there will be electron holes left in the lattice structure.
• Conduction due to these holes can occur, and the majority carriers in this type
of semiconductor, are these positive electron holes.
• Aluminium in silicon is an example of this type that is commonly known as a

p-type semiconductor (positive).
• Semiconductors - Extrinsic semiconductors
• Silicon and germanium have four outer shell electrons per atom
• If an ‘impurity’ element, that has five outer electrons is introduced, there will
be an extra electron in the lattice structure.
• The fifth valence electron can easily move in the conduction energy band and
allow conduction to take place.
• Phosphorus in silicon is an example of this type that is commonly known as a

n-type semiconductor (negative).
• Semiconductors - The p-n junction
• When a piece of n-type semiconductor is joined to a piece of p-type
semiconductor a type of ‘one way’ valve results.
• The normal method is to introduce p-type and n-type impurities into opposite
ends of a crystal of silicon or germanium.
• At the junction of the two types of materials, the positive holes in the p-type
are filled with electrons from the n-type.
• In this region the p-type atoms have gained an electron and are negatively
charged and the n-type atoms have lost an electron and become a positive
ion.
• This ‘depleted’ zone has a positive charge on one side and a negative charge
on the other.
• When a voltage is applied across the component containing the p-n junction, it will
either conduct or insulate.
• If the p-type end is made positive compared to the n-type end then the current will
flow easily.
• If the voltage is reversed, the positive holes and electrons are attracted away from
the depleted layer and it becomes very hard for charged particles to move across the
junction.
• This simple type of semiconductor device is known as a diode.
• When three layers of semiconductor material are combined, npn or pnp, a
transistor is formed.
• These semiconductor devices form the basis of the integrated circuits that
‘drive’ the modern telecommunications industry.
• These devices are made from wafer thin layers of pure silicon into which the
many individual microelectronic circuits are formed.
• This ‘chip’ is then packaged so that it can be fitted into a printed circuit board
and used in different electronic applications.
Insulators & Semiconductors
1. Explain in terms of structure, why some materials are insulators.
2. Germanium and silicon can behave as intrinsic semiconductors.
What is the effect of heat on this type of semiconductor
3. Explain how an extrinsic p-type semiconductor is formed.
4. What is formed when phosphorus is used to ‘dope’ silicon or germanium?
5. With the aid of a sketch, explain how the structure of polymers means that they are typically insulators.
6. Suggesting a specific application for each of the polymers listed;
• Polyethylene,
• epoxy,
• ABS,
• Nylon,
• PVC
7. Describe, with the aid of sketches, what happens when a voltage is applied across a p-n junction in two
situations.
• When p-end is made positive.
• When the p-end is made negative
• Fibre-optics
• What do we know about the properties of light relevant to the transmission
of data?
• Light travels fast (but so does electricity and electromagnetic radio waves)
• It has a high frequency, Light waves are only millimetres to nanometres long
• What does this mean for transmission
• In a given physical space there are more peaks and troughs, this means modulation can
happen in a smaller physical distance. = more data in smaller time frame.
• Fibre-optics
• Early use of light for digital transmission utilised laser beams from point to
point, however, rain, fog and even humidity blocked the message or caused
such a drop in attenuation that the message could not be demodulated.
• Solution?
• Guide the light using a clear core tube, shielding it from interference.
• Fibre-optics
• Typical optical fibres are very fine fibres of glass – ‘hairs’ made of pure silica.
• The method of manufacturing optical fibres had been patented back in the
1930s ‘just in case someone ever finds a use for it.’
• Initially it was difficult to keep the transmitted light inside the glass fibre but
eventually the glass core was enclosed in a glass sleeve or cladding.
• The cladding has a different refractive index to the core and causes the light
energy to be reflected back off the core-cladding interface.
• This total internal reflection means that all the light is reflected and continues
to zig-zag along the core of the fibre.
• Fibre-optics
• The optical fibres guide the light beam so wherever the fibre goes, the light
follows.
• These fibres can be made to make the light bend around corners.
• Materials used for optical fibres must:
• Allow light to travel through them and so need to be transparent.
• Be able to be formed into long thin structures
• Be flexible enough to go around bends
• Only silica glass and some polymers have these properties.

• Fibre-optics – The light source
• The ‘light’ used in fibre-optic systems is either at or just beyond the red end
of the visible light spectrum.
• This length of wave is less susceptible to attenuation in the glass.
• The light is generated by a little semiconductor laser
(Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
• Made from gallium, aluminium and arsenic.
• This device produces a stream of electromagnetic radiation, light, at a constant
frequency.
• The pulses generated in the laser by the transmitter are sent down the glass fibre and
converted back to electrical impulses by the receiver.
• Fibre-optics - Movement of light in the fibre
• As light beams move down the core of the glass fibre they bounce from side
to side.
• As long as they only hit the junction between the core and the cladding at a
low angle the total energy of the light rays is reflected back into the core and
none escapes into the cladding.
• The rays bounce to the other side and again, as long as the angle is low,
bounce back and continue to be transmitted to the end of the fibre.
• Fibre-optics
• Fibre-optics - Attenuation
• Any decrease in the intensity of the light travelling in a fibre is known as attenuation.
• Attenuation occurs in glass fibres for three main reasons.
• Atomic absorption of the light by the glass
• The scattering of light by flaws and impurities
• Reflection of light by splices and connectors.
• To overcome this attenuation, the signal is boosted at regular intervals.

• One of the advantages of glass fibres over copper conductors is that the signal in
glass travels a lot further without needing boosting.
• In data networks, for example, this can be up to 2km without the use of repeaters.
• Fibre-optics - Advantages of optical fibres
• One of the other advantages of using glass fibres is their light weight which means
easier installation.
• For example, a copper coaxial cable can be replaced by a fibre conductor that is around one-
ninth the mass.
• Optical fibres also have very wide band widths and this gives large transmission
capacity.
• Unlike copper, glass fibres aren’t affected by electromagnetic interference and
because glass doesn’t conduct there aren’t problems with earth loops.
• Glass is also suitable in dangerous environments as it doesn’t spark like metals.
• It is also more secure than coaxial cable as it can’t be spiked to tap off the data
signals and certainly the data being carried is more secure than information
transmitted in the atmosphere.
• Glass is also inert in corrosive environments, like sea water, and the raw materials,
silica and polymers, are relatively inexpensive.
• Fibre-optics – Making glass fibres
• Optical fibres are generally made by the
process of modified chemical vapour
deposition.
• A pure silicon tube, with a refractive
index of 1.46, is filled with a special gas
while being heated by an external heat
source.
• The gas deposits an inner layer of SiO2
doped with 10 per cent germanium
oxide (GeO2).
• This lining has a refractive index of 1.47.
• The composite tube is then heated to
2400oC and collapsed to achieve a solid
cored fibre.
• Fibre-optics – Aussie Science
• In the early 1970s, the CSIRO experimented with glass fibres filled with a
liquid that had a greater refractive index than that of the glass.
• While this worked, these proved hard to make and to handle, mainly because
the liquid leaked out.
• Fibre-optics – Protecting glass fibres
• The simplest method of protecting fibres is to pass them through a bath of
molten polymer to form a protective outer skin. To further isolate the fibre
from external forces, a number of methods can be used.
• In a loose buffer cable,
• a loose polymer sleeve is fitted and the gap between the fibre and sleeve is filled with a gel
material.
• Sometimes multiple fibres are combined inside a single gel-filled sleeve.
• This type of sleeve also provides the fibre with greater insulation from external heat sources.
• Tight buffer cables
• Simply use an extra tight-fitting skin over the initial fibre coating.
• A refined form uses a nylon yarn coated with a PVC jacket.
• Fibre-optics – Protecting glass fibres
• To protect cables from tensile stress during
installation, internal strength members can be
added when multiple fibre cables are constructed.
• These members keep the fibres free from stress by
minimising elongation and contraction.
• Kevlar yarn, glass filled epoxy rods and steel wire
can be used for this purpose.
• The steel reinforcing is favoured for extreme cold
temperature applications.
• Fibre-optics – Fibres in use today
• There are two main types of fibres.
• Step-index (multimode, single mode)
• Graded index (multimode)
• Fibre-optics – Fibres in use today, Multimode
• Multimode carriers allow light to move along the fibre following many
different paths.
• Some ‘modes’ take the direct route straight down the middle while others
bounce from side to side all the way down.
• Unfortunately the rays from one pulse of light may reach the other end of the
optical fibre at different times.
• This is known as Intermodal Dispersion.
• Fibre-optics – Fibres in use today,
Step-index (multimode, single mode)
• In a step-index fibre, the refractive index is constant within the core and it
‘steps’ to a different, lower value as you move into the cladding.
• This type of fibre is available with an 8–12mm core to allow a single light
beam or with a 50–200mm core for carrying multiple beams.
• This latter type is known as a multimode carrier (Multiple beams).
• Fibre-optics – Fibres in use today, Graded index (multimode)
• This type of fibre was developed to address the problem of intermodal
dispersion.
• In this type of fibre, the refractive index of the core changes from the centre
outwards.
• It has a ‘quadratic’ profile meaning that the refractive index of the core is
proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of the fibre.
• This graded difference in refractive index slows any modes that travel straight
down the centre of the fibre and allows those travelling at the edges to move
more quickly.
• Both modes are more likely to arrive at the end at the same time.
• This reduces intermodal dispersion and improves the output signal.
• Fibre-optics – Step-index (multimode, single mode) Vs Graded index (multimode)
• Fibre-optics – Polymer fibres
• Certain clear polymers can also be formed into optical fibres but, because of
the much greater attenuation than in glass fibres, all-polymer fibres are only
used on short links up to 100 m in length.
• Polymer fibres are usually of the multimode step-index type and are less
expensive, more flexible and easier to handle than glass fibres.
• Two common polymer optical fibre combinations are:
• 1
• Polystyrene core – refractive index of 1.6
• Polymethylmethacrylate cladding – refractive index of 1.49
• 2
• Polymethylmethacrylate core – refractive index of 1.49
• Fluoroalkyl methacrylate cladding – refractive index of 1.4.
Engineering Materials – Mixed Questions
1. Current is measured in: valence electrons 8. 8 Laser is the abbreviation of:
a) Volts d) d attraction between positive and negative a) light activated switch with emission
dipoles. response
b) Watts
c) Ohms 5. Comparing aluminium with copper, which b) light amplification by the stimulated
emission of radiation
d) amps. statement is correct?
c) light application of stimulated emissions of
a) aluminium is lighter radar
2. Megger testing is used to measure the: b) aluminium is a better conductor d) light across sensitive extrinsic region.
a) resistance in electronic components c) aluminium has greater tensile strength
b) insulation on large electrical equipment d) aluminium joins easily to other metals. 9. Which of the following is not used to
c) current flowing through low voltage circuits reinforce fibre-optic cables:
d) light intensity in fibre-optics. 6. Two elements commonly used as the basis a) kevlar yarn
for semiconductor devices are: b) glass-filled epoxy
3. Which of the following is not used as an a) gold and silicon c) steel wire
insulator: b) lead and silicon d) copper wire.
a) Mercury c) germanium and carbon
b) glazed porcelain d) germanium and silicon. 10. Graded index optical fibres have been
c) Paper developed in an attempt to:
d) polyethylene. 7. One of the disadvantages of using a) prevent intermodal dispersion
polyethylene for insulation on cables that b) minimise attenuation
4. Which statement best describes a metallic are to be used outside is: c) provide greater flexibility
bond. a) water vapour can penetrate the polymer
d) increase resistance to tensile stress.
a) primary bond where all valence electrons b) it melts when in direct sunlight
are ‘locked in’
c) the colour is washed off by rain
b) b a secondary bond where electrons are
free to ‘flow’ d) it reacts with the copper that it is
protecting.
c) c positive ions surrounded by a ‘cloud’ of
• Fibre-optics – Questions
• What is attenuation?
• Give three reasons why attenuation occurs in glass fibres.
• State three advantages of optical fibres over copper cables.
• Discuss how early Australian-made optical fibres were different from those
in use today and suggest a problem with these early fibres.
• Explain one method of making modern glass fibres with the aid of a
sketch/s.
• Briefly outline a method that can be used to protect glass fibres when they
are being installed or when they are in use.
• Explain the difference between step-index and graded index fibres with the
aid of sketches.
Engineering Electricity &
Electronics
Engineering Electricity & Electronics
• telecommunications including:
• analogue and digital systems
• modulation, demodulation
• radio transmission (AM, FM, digital)
• digital television transmission and display media such as plasma,
• LED, LCD, 3D
• telephony: fixed and mobile
• transmission media
• cable
• wireless
• infrared
• microwave
• fibre-optic
• satellite communication systems, geostationary, low orbit satellite and GPS
Engineering Electricity & Electronics
• Digital technology (AND, NAND, NOR, OR GATES)
Electronic circuits & Digital Logic
• Electronic circuit
• A circular path along which electrons (electricity) can flow.
• The circuit must be complete for this to occur
• Logic gate
• An electronic circuit that transforms inputs into outputs based on strict logical
rules.
• Integrated circuits are made up of combinations of logic gates.
Electronic circuits & Digital Logic
• Logic gates are the basic building blocks for the creation of digital
circuits such as microprocessors.
• Used in various combinations logic gates are able to perform all the
functions carded out by computers.
• Essentially, computers are simply a collection of logic gates.
• The branch of mathematics known as Boolean algebra can be used to assist in
the efficient design of circuits.
Electronic circuits & Digital Logic,
LOGIC Gates
• There are seven basic logic gates that are used in the construction of
integrated circuits;
• AND,
• OR,
• NOT,
• NAND,
• NOR and
• XOR.
• XNOR
Truth Tables
• Truth table
• A mathematical table used in logic to compute the functional values of logical
expressions on each of their functional arguments.
• Can be used to tell whether a expression is true for all legitimate input values.
• Representation:
Input A Input B Output

Each possible A input Each Possible B input Resulting Output
… … …
… … …
Truth Tables
• Consider that we have two inputs and the output will be 1 if both
inputs are 1, otherwise the output will be 0,

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
All possible input combinations are listed in the A & B

columns, and their resulting output in the Output column.
LOGIC Gates
• For each of our logic gates, we have an associated truth table that
identifies the output based on the inputs.
• In these courses (SDD & Fungineering) we will investigate and design
circuitry using two input gates,
• Please note that it is possible to have more than two input gates.
LOGIC Gates
• AND gate
• This circuit emulates the logical AND operator.
• This gate will output a 1 if both inputs are 1
• Truth Table:

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• OR gate
• This circuit emulates the logical OR operator.
• This gate will output a 1 if either/both inputs are 1
• Truth Table:

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• NOT gate
• This gate will inverse the input
• It is only possible to have one input into a NOT gate.
• Truth Table:
Input Output
0 1
1 0
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• NAND gate
• Short for NOT AND,
• Logically the same as an AND gate followed by
a NOT gate.
• The output from a two input NAND gate is the opposite
of that from an AND gate,
• Truth Table:

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• NOR gate
• Short for NOT OR,
• Logically the same as an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.
• All inputs must be false for the output to be true.
• Truth Table:

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• XOR gate
• Short for Exclusive OR,
• This means that precisely one input
must be 1 for the output to be 1.
• Truth Table:

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• XNOR gate
• Short for Exclusive NOT OR,
• This means that precisely one input
must be 1 for the output to be 0.
• Truth Table:

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
LOGIC Gates
C
LOGIC Gates
• 2016 Engineering HSC – Q15
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
LOGIC Gates
• Using only AND, OR and NOT gates, Create the following logic gates:
• XOR
• NAND
• NOR
• XNOR
LOGIC Gates
• Draw a truth table for the following circuits;
A B C
Test the circuits by building them

http://logic.ly/demo/
LOGIC Gates
• Determine the logic gate that is associated with each truth table.
LOGIC Gates
2008 SDD HSC – Q25c

LOGIC Gates
2014 SDD HSC – Q36c

LOGIC Gates
• 2009 SDD HSC – Q25d
LOGIC Gates
• 2010 SDD HSC – Q25b
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Telecommunications

• Specific Technologies will be Further discussed in

• Dealing with a breach Legal and Ethical responsibility

• Low resistivity /highly conductive

• Cadmium, have little effect on the conductivity.

• Aluminium is specially suitable for aerial power transmission cables.

• Aluminium in silicon is an example of this type that is commonly known as a

• Phosphorus in silicon is an example of this type that is commonly known as a

• Only silica glass and some polymers have these properties.

• To overcome this attenuation, the signal is boosted at regular intervals.

Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B Output

All possible input combinations are listed in the A & B

Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B Output

Input A Input B Output

Test the circuits by building them

2008 SDD HSC – Q25c

2014 SDD HSC – Q36c

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