ELECTRONICS DEVICES

(SEMICONDUCTORS)

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 CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• DIODE
– CONSTRUCTION & OPERATIONS
– CHARACTERISTICS (IDEAL & PRACTICAL)
– APPLICATION CIRCUITS
– DATA SHEET

• TRANSISTOR
– CONSTRUCTION & OPERATIONS
– CHARACTERISTICS (IDEAL & PRACTICAL)
– APPLICATION CIRCUITS
– DATA SHEET

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 OUTCOME OF THE COURSE
• Students are able to develop and employ circuit models
for elementary electronic components, e.g., resistors,
sources, capacitors, diodes and transistors.
• Become adept at using various methods of circuit
analysis, including simplified methods such as series-
parallel reductions, voltage and current dividers, and
the node method.
• Develop the capability to analyze and design simple
circuits containing non-linear elements such as
transistors using the concepts of load lines, operating
points and the practical applications of the various
electronic components.

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 What Are Diodes Made Out Of?
• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most
common single elements that are used to make Diodes.
A compound that is commonly used is Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs
Si Si Si
because of it’s large bandgap. +4 +4 +4
• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements,
meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their
structure allows them to grow in a shape called the
diamond lattice. Si Si Si
+4 +4 +4
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group
5 element. When put together as a compound, GaAs
creates a zincblend lattice structure.
• In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each Si Si Si
atom shares its valence electrons with its four closest +4 +4 +4

neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately

allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups
3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it
changes the properties of the material so we are able to
make the P- and N-type materials that become the
diode.

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 N-Type Material

• When extra valence electrons are introduced into a

material such as silicon an n-type material is produced.
The extra valence electrons are introduced by putting
impurities or dopants into the silicon. The dopants used
to create an n-type material are Group V elements. The
most commonly used dopants from Group V are
arsenic, antimony and phosphorus.
• The 2D diagram to the left shows the extra electron that
will be present when a Group V dopant is introduced to
a material such as silicon. This extra electron is very
mobile.

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 P-Type Material

• P-type material is produced when the dopant that is

introduced is from Group III. Group III elements have
only 3 valence electrons and therefore there is an
electron missing. This creates a hole (h+), or a positive
charge that can move around in the material.
Commonly used Group III dopants are aluminum,
boron, and gallium.
• The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole that will be
present when a Group III dopant is introduced to a
material such as silicon. This hole is quite mobile in
the same way the extra electron is mobile in a n-type
material.

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 The PN Junction

Metallurgical Junction

Na Nd

- - - - - + + + + +
- - - - - + + + + +
- - - - - + + + + +
P - - - - - + + + + +
n

Space Charge Region

ionized acceptors
ionized donors

E-Field

_ _
+ +

h+ drift = = h+ diffusion e- diffusion = = e- drift

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 Diodes and Bias
• Diode: simple P-N junction.
• Forward Bias: allows current to
flow from P to N.
• Reverse Bias: no current allowed
to flow from N to P.
• Breakdown Voltage: sufficient N
to P voltage of a Zener Diode will
allow for current to flow in this
direction.

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 Load-Line Analysis
• The load line plots all possible
combinations of diode current (ID)
and voltage (VD) for a given
circuit. The maximum ID equals
E/R, and the maximum VD equals
E.

• The point where the load line and

the characteristic curve intersect is
the Q-point, which identifies ID
and VD for a particular diode in a
given circuit.

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 Series Diode Configurations
Forward Bias
Constants
• Silicon Diode: VD = 0.7 V
• Germanium Diode: VD = 0.3 V

Analysis (for silicon)

• VD = 0.7 V (or VD = E if E < 0.7 V)
• VR = E – VD
• ID = IR = IT = VR / R

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 Series Diode Configurations
Reverse Bias
Diodes ideally behave as
open circuits

Analysis
• VD = E
• VR = 0 V
• ID = 0 A

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 Parallel Configurations

V  0.7 V
D
V V  V  0.7 V
D1 D2 O
V  9.3 V
R
EV 10 V  .7 V
I  D   28 mA
R R .33k Ω
28 mA
I I   14 mA
D1 D2 2

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Applications of basic Diode

•Radio demodulation
•Power conversion
•Over-voltage protection
•Logic gates
•Ionizing radiation detectors
•Temperature measuring
•Current steering

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 RECTIFIER
• Rectifier is an electrical device composed of one or
more diodes that converts alternating current (AC) to
pulsating direct current (DC)
Types of Rectifiers:
Half wave Rectifier
Full wave Rectifier
• Center tapped full wave rectifier
• Bridge full wave rectifier.

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 Half-Wave Rectification
• The diode only conducts when it is forward biased, therefore only
half of the AC cycle passes through the diode to the output.

The DC output
voltage is 0.318Vm,
where Vm = the
peak AC voltage.

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 PIV & PRV
• Because the diode is only forward biased for one-half of the
AC cycle, it is also reverse biased for one-half cycle.

• It is important that the reverse breakdown voltage rating of the

diode be high enough to withstand the peak, reverse-biasing
AC voltage.

– PIV (or PRV) > Vm

• PIV = Peak inverse voltage
• PRV = Peak reverse voltage
• Vm = Peak AC voltage

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 Full-Wave Rectification
• The rectification process can be improved by
using a full-wave rectifier circuit.
• Full-wave rectification produces a greater DC
output:
• Half-wave: Vdc = 0.318Vm
• Full-wave: Vdc = 0.636Vm

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Input waveform Output waveform

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 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

• Four diodes are connected in a

bridge configuration
• VDC = 0.636Vm

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 Full Wave Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier

Requires
• Two diodes
• Center-tapped transformer

VDC = 0.636Vm

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 Summary of Rectifier Circuits

Rectifier Ideal VDC Realistic VDC

VDC = -----Vrms
Half Wave Rectifier VDC = 0.318Vm – 0.7
VDC = 0.318Vm

Bridge Rectifier VDC = 0.636Vm VDC = 0.636Vm – 2(0.7 V)

Center-Tapped Transformer
VDC = 0.636Vm VDC = 0.636Vm – 0.7 V
Rectifier

Vm = peak of the AC voltage.

In the center tapped transformer rectifier circuit, the peak AC voltage is the
transformer secondary voltage to the tap.

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APPLICATIONS OF RECTIFER
• Power supplies for radio, television and computer
equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would
be produced by a battery).
• Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
• Battery Charging Circuits

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 DIODE CLIPPERS

The diode in a series

clipper “clips” any voltage
that does not forward bias
it:
•A reverse-biasing polarity
•A forward-biasing polarity
less than 0.7 V (for a
silicon diode)

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 Biased Clippers

Adding a DC source
in series with the
clipping diode
changes the effective
forward bias of the
diode.

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 Parallel Clippers

•The diode in a parallel

clipper circuit “clips” any
voltage that forward bias
it.

•DC biasing can be added

in series with the diode to
change the clipping level.

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Summary of Clipper Circuits

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Summary of Clipper Circuits

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 APPLICATIONS OF CLIPPER
• They are used to remove the unwanted
portions like noise accumulated on peaks of
waveforms.
• They are used in TV Receivers to separate
pulses from the composite video signal.
• Two level clippers are used as square wave
generators.
• They are used in PPM modulators.

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 Clampers

•A diode and
capacitor can be
combined to
“clamp” or “shift”
an AC signal to a
specified DC level.

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 Biased Clamper Circuits

•The input signal can be any

type of waveform such as
sine, square, and triangle
waves.

•The DC source lets you

adjust the DC camping level.

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Summary of Clamper Circuits

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 APPLICATIONS OF CLAMPER
• They are used in TV Receivers to restore the
original DC reference signal to the video
signal.
• They are used in voltage multipliers.
• They are used to supply power to high
voltage/low current devices like CRT’s used in
TV Receivers, CRO’s and computer displays.

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 Zener Diodes

• The Zener is a diode operated in

reverse bias at the Zener Voltage (Vz).

• When Vi  VZ
– The Zener is on
– Voltage across the Zener is VZ
– Zener current: IZ = IR – IRL
– The Zener Power: PZ = VZIZ

• When Vi < VZ
– The Zener is off
– The Zener acts as an open circuit

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 Zener Resistor Values
If R is too large, the Zener diode cannot conduct because the available amount of
current is less than the minimum current rating, IZK. The minimum current is given
by:
I Lmin  I R  I ZK

The maximum value of resistance is:

VZ
RLmax 
I Lmin

If R is too small, the Zener current exceeds the maximum current

rating, IZM . The maximum current for the circuit is given by:
VL V
I L max   Z
RL RL min
The minimum value of resistance is:
RVZ
RL min 
Vi  VZ

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APPLICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE

• Used as a voltage regulator.

• Used as a peak clippers or voltage limiters.
• Used as a fixed reference voltage in network
for biasing, comparison purposes and for
calibrating voltmeters.
• For wave-shaping circuits.

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 Voltage-Multiplier Circuits
•Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of diodes
and capacitors to step up the output voltage of rectifier
circuits.

•Voltage multiplier produces the output DC voltage with

the multiples of AC input voltages.

Types of Voltage Multiplier:

• Voltage Doubler
• Voltage Tripler
• Voltage Quadrupler

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 Voltage Doubler

•Voltage doubler produces the output DC voltage with double the times of
AC input voltages.

This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated by:

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer

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 Voltage Doubler

• Positive Half-Cycle
o D1 conducts
o D2 is switched off
o Capacitor C1 charges to Vm

• Negative Half-Cycle
o D1 is switched off
o D2 conducts
o Capacitor C2 charges to Vm

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

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 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler
•It produces the output DC voltage with thrice & four the times of AC input
voltages.

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APPLICATIONS OF VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER

• Voltage multiplier are used in high voltage and low

current applications such as accelerating purpose in a
CRT.
• Generally Voltage multipliers are used where both the
supply voltage and load are maintained constant.

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 Practical Applications
• Rectifier Circuits
– Power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as
would be produced by a battery).
– Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
– Battery Charging Circuits

• Simple Diode Circuits

– Radio demodulation
– Power conversion
– Over-voltage protection
– Logic gates
– Ionising radiation detectors
– Temperature measuring
– Current steering

• Zener Circuits
– Zener Diode as Voltage Regulators
– Overvoltage Protection
– Zener Diode as a clamper circuit
– Setting Reference Voltages
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DATA SHEET

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DATA SHEET

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 What is a Transistor?
• Semiconductors: ability to change
from conductor to insulator
• Can either allow current or prohibit
current to flow
• Useful as a switch, but also as an
amplifier
• Essential part of many technological
advances

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 How Transistors Works?
• Doping: adding small amounts of other
elements to create additional protons or
electrons
• P-Type: dopants lack a fourth valence electron
(Boron, Aluminum)
• N-Type: dopants have an additional (5th)
valence electron (Phosphorus, Arsenic)
• Importance: Current only flows from P to N

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 Transistor Construction
There are two types of transistors:
• pnp
• npn
pnp

The terminals are labeled:

• E - Emitter
• B - Base
• C - Collector

npn

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 Transistor Operation
With the external sources, VEE and VCC, connected as shown:

• The emitter-base junction is forward biased

• The base-collector junction is reverse biased

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 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• 3 adjacent regions of doped Si
(each connected to a lead):
– Base. (thin layer, less doped).
– Collector.
– Emitter.
• 2 types of BJT:
npn bipolar junction transistor

– npn.
– pnp.
• Most common: npn (focus on
it).

pnp bipolar junction transistor

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 Current flow in a Transistor

Emitter current is the sum of the collector and

base currents:

IE  IC  IB

The collector current is comprised of two

currents:
IC  IC  I CO
majority minority

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 TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION
There are 3 types of configurations are available.
•Common Base configuration
•Common Emitter configuration
•Common Collector configuration

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 Common-Base Configuration

•Here the base is common to both input (emitter–base) and output (collector–
base) of the transistor.

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 Common-Base Amplifier

Input Characteristics

This curve shows the relationship

between of input current (IE) to input
voltage (VBE) for three output voltage
(VCB) levels.

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 Common-Base Amplifier

Output Characteristics
This graph demonstrates the
output current (IC) to an
output voltage (VCB) for
various levels of input
current (IE).

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 Operating Regions
There are three different operating regions are available in a transistor
, they are,
• Active – Operating range of the amplifier.
• Cutoff – The amplifier is basically off. There is voltage, but little
current.
• Saturation – The amplifier is full on. There is current, but little
voltage.

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Voltage and current approximations

•Emitter and collector currents:

I I
C E

•Base-emitter voltage:

VBE  0.7 V (for Silicon)

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 Parameter- Alpha(α)

Alpha (a) is the ratio of IC to IE :

IC
αdc 
IE

Ideally: a = 1
In reality: a is between 0.9 and 0.998

Alpha (a) in the AC mode:

ΔI C
αac 
ΔI E

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 Transistor Amplification

Currents and Voltages: Voltage Gain:

Vi 200mV VL 50V
I E  Ii    10mA Av    250
Ri 20Ω Vi 200mV
I I
C E
I  I  10 mA
L i
V  I R  (10 ma )( 5 kΩ)  50 V
L L

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 Common–Emitter Configuration

•The emitter is common to both input

(base-emitter) and output (collector-
emitter), it is known as common emitter
configuration.

•The input is on the base and the

output is on the collector.

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Common-Emitter Characteristics

Collector Characteristics Base Characteristics

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 Common-Emitter Amplifier Currents
•Ideal Currents

IE = IC + IB IC = a IE

•Actual Currents

IC = a IE + ICBO where ICBO = minority collector current

ICBO is usually so small that it can be ignored, except in high
power transistors and in high temperature environments.

When IB = 0 A the transistor is in cutoff, but there is some minority

current flowing called ICEO.
I CBO
I CEO  I B  0 μA
1 α

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 Parameter Beta ()
‘ ’represents the amplification factor of a transistor. It is
sometimes referred to as hfe, a term used in transistor modeling
calculations)

•In DC mode:
IC
βdc 
IB

•In AC mode:
IC
 ac  VCE constant
IB

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 Beta ()
Determining  from a Graph

(3.2 mA  2.2 mA)

β AC 
(30 μA  20 μA)
1 mA
 V  7.5
10 μA C E
 100

2.7 mA
β DC  VC E  7.5
25 A
 108

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 Beta ()

Relationship between amplification factors  and a

β α
α β
β1 α 1

Relationship Between Currents

I C  βI B I E  (β  1)I B

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 Common–Collector Configuration

•The input is on the

base and the output is
on the emitter.

•The collector terminal

is common to both
input and output , it is
known as common
collector configuration.

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 Common–Collector Configuration

•The characteristics are similar

to those of the common-emitter
configuration, except the
vertical axis is IE.

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 Operating Limits for Each Configuration

•VCE is at maximum and IC is at

minimum (ICmax= ICEO) in the cutoff
region.

•IC is at maximum and VCE is at

minimum (VCE max = VCEsat = VCEO) in
the saturation region.

•The transistor operates in the active

region between saturation and cutoff.

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 Power Dissipation analysis
•Common-base:
PCmax  VCB I C

•Common-emitter:

PCmax  VCE I C

•Common-collector:

PCmax  VCE I E

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Transistor Specification Sheet

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Transistor Specification Sheet

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 Transistor Testing
• Curve Tracer
Provides a graph of the characteristic curves.

• DMM
Some DMMs measure DC or hFE.

• Ohmmeter

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Transistor Terminal Identification

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 BJT characteristics
• Current Gain:
– α is the fraction of electrons that diffuse
across the narrow Base region
– 1- α is the fraction of electrons that
recombine with holes in the Base region to I C  aI E
create base current
• The current Gain is expressed in terms of I B  (1  a ) I E
the β (beta) of the transistor (often called
hfe by manufacturers). IC a
• β (beta) is Temperature and Voltage  
dependent. IB 1a
• It can vary a lot among transistors (common
values for signal BJT: 20 - 200).

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 BJT as Switch
•Vin(Low ) < 0.7 V
•BE junction not forward
biased
•Cutoff region
•No current flows
•Vout = VCE = Vcc
•Vout = High

•Vin(High)
•BE junction forward biased (VBE=0.7V)
•Saturation region
•VCE small (~0.2 V for saturated BJT)
•Vout = small
•IB = (Vin-VB)/RB
•Vout = Low 73
 BJT as Switch
• Basics of digital logic circuits
• Input to transistor gate can be analog or digital
• Building blocks for TTL – Transistor Transistor Logic
• Guidelines for designing a transistor switch:
– VC>VB>VE
– VBE= 0.7 V
– IC independent from IB (in saturation).
– Min. IB estimated from by (IBmin» IC/b).
– Input resistance such that IB > 5-10 times IBmin because b varies
among components, with temperature and voltage and RB may change
when current flows.
– Calculate the max IC and IB not to overcome device specifications.

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BJT as Amplifier

•Common emitter mode

•Linear Active Region
•Significant current Gain
Example:
•Let Gain, β = 100

•Assume to be in active
region -> VBE=0.7V

•Find if it’s in active region

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 APPLICATIONS OF BJT
The major applications of BJT are
• Switching and
• Amplification.

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