Water Supply

Dr.Ohn Thaik
Professor
Department of Mining
 Introduction
• Primary important for the successful
exploitation
• To determine the quantity of water available
for operation
• Depend on the method of operation and the
equipment to be installed
• 8 – 12 time s the volume of the gravel to be
treated
• Rivers, streams and creeks, rain and snow, are
the chief sources of water supply
• Calculate on the average rainfall, for the past 5
years
• some tropical countries, the water in rivers
and streams may disappear entirely during the
dry season
 V-notch weirs
• The flow of water may be measured by "V-notch"
or rectangular weirs.
• up to about 6 cu. ft per sec

• Barnes' Formula
• Q = discharge of water, in cubic feet per second
• H = head in feet;
• H being measured from the bottom of the notch
and about 6 ft back from the weir
DISCHARGE OVER V-NOTCH WEIRS
 Rectangular Weirs
• suitable for measuring the flow in medium-sized
streams
• "suppressed" or "contracted“

• a stake should be driven into the bed of the

stream, about 6 ft back from the weir
• the height of the stake above the stream bed
being equal to the height of the weir crest
Method of measuring flow in
rectangular weir
• the weir crest equal to three times the head
• For suppressed weirs

• For contracted weirs

Q = discharge of water, in cubic feet per second,

L = length of weir, in feet, and
H = head, in feet.
 Velocity of approach
• For V-notch weirs.
Add 0-1 𝑢2 to the observed head,
• For suppressed weirs
Add 1/50 𝑢2 to the observed head,
• For contracted weirs.
Add 1/70 𝑢2 to the observed head
where u = the mean velocity of water in the
approach channel, in ft per sec
• A piece of cork or some other float, to pass down
the river between two fixed points, 100 to 200 ft
apart
• Noting the time taken for the float to pass from
one point to the other
• The length of the course, in feet, divided by the
number of seconds taken by the float to
complete the course
• the surface velocity
• multiplied by 0-8 to obtain the mean velocity
• necessary first to impound the water, behind
dams, in a storage reservoir
• To ensure a constant supply of water at all
times
• the water is then conveyed by means of leats,
flumes, or pipe-lines to the working places
 Dams
• essential to have all relevant data referring to
water supply
• Catchment area
• Foundation
• Elevation
• Catchment area
obtains the largest quantity of water from all rivers,
streams, creeks and tributaries
• Foundation
a good, solid foundation for the wall of the dam, besides
reducing all losses
• Elevation
The headworks of a diversion dam consist principally of
(a) the dam proper,
(b) the outlet and gates, and
(c) the spillway
• built of earth, loose rock, concrete, timber
• The height of the dam should be such that a
sufficient head of water is maintained in the leat
or other conduit
• very essential to prevent loss of water by seepage
and infiltration
• to prevent the main structure from being
damaged
• Whilst the dam is being constructed, it is
necessary to divert the flow of water by means of
either a drain or wooden launders
 Earth dams
• must be built on a solid rock foundation
• must be made impervious to water
• a trench is excavated well down into bedrock
• filled with well-puddled clay, in layers, which is well
rammed down
• the trench is full, the dumping of clay, in layers, is
continued until a wall of the required height is obtained
• to ensure impermeability
• a top width of from 4 to 8 ft
• the bottom width is usually calculated by adding a batter of
1 in. per ft of vertical height, on each side, to the top width
• the inner and outer slopes of which should be
well puddled, to increase impermeability
• a layer of stone or rock paving is generally laid
on the inner side of the embankment, to
protect it from wave action
 Loose rock dams
• rock is abundant
• suitable material is unobtainable for building
an earth dam
• Loose rock is dumped into place, and made
watertight by the use of wood planking, earth,
clay
 Concrete dams
• built of either ordinary concrete or reinforced
concrete
• Cost is the most considerable factor for the
alluvial mining
 Timber dams
• Timber dams consist of log cribbing, filled with
broken rock,
• Round logs, from 12 to 18 in. diameter, are
laid in lines across
• the full width of the dam; at right angles to
and upon them, other logs are laid, and this
procedure repeated till the required height of
dam is attained.
• The log are joggled at the intersections and
are bolted together with
• the bottom timbers being bolted to the
bedrock wooden or iron pins
• the cribbing thus formed is filled with broken
rock
• the face of the dam being made watertight by
nailing on a layer of wood planking
• A timber dam of a provisional character
• for damming a small flow of water
• Logs, about 6 in. in diameter, and of the
necessary length, are driven into the ground
on an incline and are supported by two lines
of transversal logs resting in notched stakes
• The necessary length, are driven into the ground
on an incline and are supported by two lines of
transversal logs resting in notched stakes
• driven into the ground
• Other lines of logs are then laid across the face of
the inclined members, and at right angles to
them, for the full width of the dam
• a mat of brushwood is fastened, and the whole
made impermeable by imposing a layer of well-
puddled clay over the mat
 Stake dams
• up to a length of 100 to 200 ft, and up to 6 to 10 ft in
height;
• a trench of the required width is excavated to bedrock
• stakes of 6 in. diameter and of the required length are
driven
• into bedrock to a depth of 12 in.,
• on both sides of the trench at intervals of 12 ft.
• Cross-pieces, about 2 in. diameter, are then fastened to
the uprights,
• the whole forming a compact, rigid framework
• Braces are placed in position against each
upright, on both sides of the framework
• the whole is then filled in with well-puddled
clay, which is well rammed down in layers
 Outlet and gates
• The outlet and gates should be separate from the main
structure, although in the case of small dams the outlet is
sometimes situated in the dam itself.
• The supply of water flowing into the leat or other conduit is
controlled by means of a head-gate;
• the sluice-gate type, and may be constructed of either
wood or iron, may be either round or rectangular in form,
and is operated by hand or by mechanical means, such as
hand wheels, cranks,
• The gate moves in vertical guides set in masonry .
• Necessary to see that the head-gate is set at right angles to
the leat, to prevent water entering obliquely, and damaging
the sides of the leat, by undercutting
 Spillways
• Every dam must be provided with a spillway or
waste weir, large enough to carry off all excess
water
• prevents the water in the storage reservoir
behind the dam rising and flowing over the crest
of the dam and destroying or damaging it.
• This precaution should never be neglected.
• In the case of large rivers, the spillway should be
apart from the dam proper
 Maintenance of dam
• the importance of the dam
• the structure should be inspected frequently
and examined for any signs of leaks, seepages,
cracks
• should be repaired immediately
 Leats, ditches, or canals
• the cheapest type of conduit, for the conveyance
of water, is a leat cut in the ground
• a trapezoidal cross section
• quantity of water at a given velocity
Q=Av
where A = area, in square feet,
Q = quantity of water, in cubic feet per
second,
v = velocity of water, in feet per second
• Leats should not be more than three-quarters
full,

A=((AB+DC)/2)*DE
• Rectangular sections are sometimes used but
are suitable only in hard rock
 Gradient

where g = fall in feet required per mile,

v = velocity of flow, in feet per second,
p = wetted perimeter, in feet, and
A = cross section of leat, in square feet
where g = fall in feet required per mile,
v = velocity of flow, in feet per second, and
m = hydraulic mean depth, m=A/P
where P = wetted perimeter in feet, and
A = cross section, in square feet.
where v = velocity, in feet per second,
m = hydraulic mean depth, and
i = sine of the angle of inclination
• Stakes usually being driven into the ground at
100 ft intervals
• intermediate stakes at 10 to 20 ft intervals
being shot in by means of boning rods
• A boning rod may consist of a well-planed
piece of timber, 20 ft long
• fixed two perpendicular pieces
• Perpendicular members are of different
lengths
 Construction of leats
• the line of pegs marking out the leat always
represents the lower edge of the leat
• pegs should be marked with the distances and
also the difference in level
• the depth to which the leat must be excavated
• a width equal to the bottom width of the leat
is marked out uphill
• a trench then excavated with vertical walls to
the required depth
• When this excavation is finished, the top width of
the leat is then marked out
• The vertical walls sloped to obtain the necessary
side slopes
• The earth excavated during the construction of a
leat must always be thrown out on the lower side
and never on the upper side
• embankment not only serves to strengthen the
lower wall of the leat, but also serves as a road
for examination and maintenance purposes
 Maintenance of leats
• should be inspected daily to see
• Immediate steps must be taken to stop
leakages
• the action of running water will soon cause a
small crack to become a large hole
• necessary to revet the side of a leat which
shows signs of weakness
 Spillways
• to control the discharge of water
• Long leats should be provided with spillways,
situated at not more than 1/2 mile intervals
• carry off any flood water or to discharge any
excess of water
• should be fitted with iron or wooden doors
 Drops
• either vertical or inclined
• The natural slope of the ground is too steep to
admit of a direct running leat
• is desired to lose head
• Vertical drops must be lined with timber to
prevent damage being done to the leat
• inclined drops consist of a series of artificial
rapids formed by boulders held in place by means
of stakes driven in the ground
• help to check the flow of water during its descent
Vertical drops
Inclined drops
 Turn-outs
• for distributing water from the leat to the
launders
• constructed of timber
• connection between the turn-out and the leat
must be cemented, to prevent leakage of
water
• fitted with a small wooden door, working in
vertical guides, for controlling the flow of
water to the launders
 Flumes
• use is very necessary, for example in crossing
ravines, or where the ground is too hard and
too costly for leat excavation
• rectangular, trapezoidal, or semi-circular in
shape
• either timber or sheet steel
• from 1 1/2 in. thick by 12 in. wide by 12 ft
long, to 2 in. thick by 18 in. wide by 12 ft long
• the bottom planks should be tongued and
grooved to make a tight joint
• joints between flume sections should be made
flush
• Sills, posts, and caps are placed at 3 to 4 ft
intervals
• Trestles are used to carry flumes across
valleys, ravines
• the mortice hole in the sill is made longer than
is necessary for the leg
• the leg is allowed to go through this hole
• necessary to see that all joints, in a line of
flumes, are absolutely watertight, to avoid loss
of water
• When erecting trestles, to carry a line of
flumes, it is most important that braces and
transversal pieces be so fixed
• Braces and transversal pieces should be let
into the legs of the trestles
• Curves should be avoided as far as possible
• cause excessive friction and wear
• the velocity of the water is reduced
• should not be greater than 4 to 5 in. per 12 ft

where v = velocity, in feet per second,

m = hydraulic mean depth, and
i = sine of the angle of inclination
Discharge of Flumes
 Pipes
• made of cast iron, wrought iron, steel, or
wood
• Steel pipes are generally used for hydraulic
mining purposes, and vary from 7 to 36 in. in
diameter
• the welded and riveted (ordinary and spiral)
• Riveted steel pipe is commonly used for high
heads and large size pipe-lines
• Spiral riveted pipe

• Wood stave pipe

• the longitudinal seams are joined by a double
riveted lap joint
• Double or triple riveted butt joints are
sometimes used in the larger sizes
• Spiral riveted pipe is chiefly used for small
heads, and sizes up to about 36 in. diameter.
• Wood pipes are constructed of redwood, fir,
or Oregon yellow pine
• suitable for moderate heads, up to 200 ft
 Pipe joints
• slip joint for low pressure
• flanged joints for heavy
pressure
• Bolted joints are also used,
absolutely tight under the
highest pressures,
consists of a special collar,
of slightly larger diameter
than the pipe to be connected
 Design of pipe-lines
• be kept below the hydraulic gradient
• be kept as straight as possible in a vertical
plane
• have no sudden variations in the diameter and
strengths of pipes
• be of sufficient diameter to carry not only the
quantity of water for immediate requirements,
but a surplus to meet any unforeseen demand
• Lateral bends or curves in the pipe-line are
permissible
• with the necessity of expansion joints
• vertical bends should be avoided
• air is likely to be trapped inside the pipe-line
• If a pipe-line is laid absolutely straight without
curves or bends in a longitudinal plane, then
expansion joints must be provided
• For long pipe-lines, larger diameter pipes be
used to prevent loss of head due to friction
 Hydraulic gradient
• the different water levels in the tubes are
joined by a straight line
• the inclination of the line from the horizontal
is known as the slope of the hydraulic gradient
• If a pipe-line drops below the hydrauhc gradient,
such portion of the line is subjected to a bursting
pressure
• if a pipe-line rises above the hydrauhc gradient, it
is subjected to a collapsing stress
• air valves to allow air to escape when filling, or to
allow air to enter when the line is being emptied
• stop valves at frequent intervals, to enable water
to be shut off in any section, should breakage
occur
Air Valve
 Bends
• Bends in a pipe-line should be gradual, as the
loss of head due to a gradual bend is
negligible
• The radius of the bend is equal to 5 times the
radius of the pipe
• the pipe near the delivery end should be of
the largest diameter and lightest thickness,
whereas the pipe at the discharge end should
be of smaller diameter and greater thickness
• a small-diameter pipe will stand a greater
pressure than a pipe of large diameter, other
things being equal
• the variations should be gradual
• The water is delivered by leat or flume to a
pressure or head-box, or penstock
• a wooden or iron box, or merely an excavation
in the ground
• screen to prevent floating matter from entering
and choking the pipe
• at least 8 ft deep, and 4 to 6 ft of water should
always be maintained over the mouth of the pipe
• to prevent air entering the pipe-line and
impeding, or stopping, the flow of water
• ensure that the pressure box is always full. Any
excess of water can run to waste, by means of the
overflow pipe
• When filling the main pipe-line, the water
from the pressure box or penstock should be
allowed to enter very gradually
• otherwise air may be trapped in some portion
of the line
• if air valves are not fitted properly, which on
being compressed may result in burst pipes
Arrangement of pipe line, showing
penstock
DISCHARGE OF PIPES IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND, WITH
GIVEN FALL PER MILE
• New asphalted cast-iron pipes

• New uncoated cast-iron pipes

• New asphalted screw-jointed, riveted

wrought-iron pipes

• New asphalted double riveted wrought iron

and steel pipes taper or cylinder joints
DISCHARGE OF PIPES, WITH GIVEN FALL PER 1000 FT
 VELOCITY IN FEET PER SECOND, AND SUPPLY IN
GALLONS PER MINUTE OF LONG PIPES FLOWING FULL.
s
continued
 v = 140 mi- 11 mi

where v = velocity in feet per second,

m = mean hydraulic depth
= d/4 for circular section of pipe, where
d is diameter of pipe, in feet,
i = sine of slope
= h/l where h is the head of water in feet,
and l is the length of pipe, in feet
• To change length

• To change head

• To change length and head

• To change diameter
where Qa = discharge after change in length, head,
or diameter.
Qb = discharge before change.
la = length after change.
lb = length before change.
ha = head after change.
hb = head before change.
da = diameter after change.
db = diameter before change
AREA AND HYDRAULIC MEAN RADII OF PIPES
 Friction head
• the friction set up between the interior
surface of the pipe and the flowing water
• diminishing the discharge
• depends entirely on the velocity of the flow
• greater in a pipe of small diameter than in a
pipe of larger diameter, for the same velocity
• alluvial mines are operating under severe
difficulties through lack of head
• New asphalted cast-iron pipes

• New uncoated cast-iron pipes

• New asphalted screw-jointed, riveted
wrought-iron pipes

• New asphalted single riveted wrought iron

and steel pipes
• New asphalted double riveted wrought iron and
steel pipes (taper or cylinder joints)

where h = friction head, in feet.

l = length of pipe-line, in feet.
v = velocity of flow, in feet per second.
m = hydraulic mean radius, in feet.
d = diameter of pipe, in feet
• 12 in diameter

• 24 in diameter
the effect of a reduced velocity of flow
• the flow velocity is 3 ft per sec
• friction head must be taken into account when
designing pipe-lines
• as large a diameter pipe-line as is consistent
with good practice should be used
• velocity of flow should be kept as low as
possible
• 1 placer mining
• 2 mobile placer mining plant