ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
The Complex Organism
Cells
●

Tissues
●

Organs
●

System
●

Human body
●
Body Fluids
Body Weight
1. Intracellular fluid 45%
2. Extracellular fluid
 Vascular or Plasma 5%
 Interstitial 15%
 Total Body Fluid 65% of actual body weight
Homeostasis
 The cell needs a constant environment to function
properly and effectively
 Negative feedback: informational signal that tells
the driving mechanism how well doing at
establishing or maintaining some variables at the
desired level.
Negative Feedback System
Increase in Blood
CO2
CONCENTRATION

(-) compensating Increase in

change is negative Activity of Brain
to initial change Respiratory Center

Increase in Increase in
removal of CO2 Depth and rate of
from the body breathing
Coordination of the Body
 Human body is not simply an aggregate or collection of
substances or parts, but a highly organized and precisely
coordinated unit that functions as an integrated whole.
 Organs of Homeostasis: primary function is to maintain
balance
1. Heart
2. Lungs
3. Kidneys
4. Liver
5. GI tract
6. Skin
Coordination of the body
 2 general types of Internal Regulating Mechanisms
1. CNS: acts as a sort of hierarchical integrator,
receiving messages from its network of sensory
nerves and putting out messages through its motor
nerves to compensate for any detected imbalance or
disturbance
2. HORMONAL System: composed of major endocrine
glands that secrete chemical substances called
hormones.
 Hormones are transported in the extracellular fluids to all parts
of the body to help regulate function.
Understanding the Complex Behavior

FOOD
 DIRECTIONS
 The anatomic posture is erect, facing forward with the arms at the sides and the palms
toward the front.
 All descriptions of location or position assumes the anatomic posture.
 The ff directions are usually considered:
1. Superior – uppermost or above; e.g., the head is superior to the neck
2. Inferior – lowermost or below; e.g., foot is inferior to the ankle
3. Anterior – toward the front, ventral; e.g., breast is at the anterior chest wall
4. Posterior – toward the back, dorsal; vertabrae is posterior to the digestive tract
5. Cephalad – toward the head, the thoracic cavity lies cephalad (superior) to the abdominal
cavity.
6. Medial – nearest to the midline of the body; the ulna is on the medial side of the forearm.
7. Lateral – toward the side; that is, away from the medial side; the radius is on the lateral to
the ulna
8. Proximal – nearest point of attachment or origin; the elbow is proximal to the wrist.
9. Distal – away from the point of attachment or origin; the wrist is distal to the elbow.
10. Internal/external
PLAINS
 The body is also discussed with respect to planes
passing through it.
1. Midsagittal – plane vertically dividing the body through
the midline into right and left halves.
2. Sagittal – any parallel to the mid-sagittal line vertically
dividing the body into right and left portions.
3. Horizontal (transverse) – any plane dividing the body into
superior and inferior
4. Frontal (coronal) – any plane dividing the body into
anterior (or ventral) and posterior (or dorsal) portions at
right angles to the sagittal plane.
CAVITIES
 Cavity is a term used to describe the 3rd organizational
reference system.
 Two major cavities
1. Ventral cavity
A. Thoracic – pleural and pericardial cavities
B. Abdominopelvic
2. Dorsal cavity
A. Cranial
B. Spinal
 The organs of a cavity are collectively referred to as
viscera
CAVITIES
1. VENTRAL CAVITY
 Organs of the ventral cavity are involved in maintaining a constant internal
environment, or homeostasis
a. Thoracic cavity is divided into pericardial and pleural cavities.
b. Abdominopelvic cavity contains the organs inferior to the respiratory diaphragm.
2. DORSAL CAVITY
 Contains structure of the nervous system serving to coordinate the body’s
functions in a unified manner.
 Divided into cranial and spinal cavites.

PARIETAL refers to the walls of a cavity; e.g., parietal peritoneum lines the
abdominal walls.
VISCERAL refers to the covering of the organs; e.g., visceral peritoneum refers to
the covering of the abdominal organs.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
 The 4th and final system of reference is the
structural unit, subdivided into cells, tissues, organs
and systems.
1. Cells.
 All living matter is composed of cells.
Protoplasm as the basic constituent, an aqueous colloidal solution
of CHON, lipid, CHON, and inorganic salts surrounded by a
limiting membrane.
Performs all activities necessary to maintain life, including
metabolism, respiration, digestion, assimilation, excretion and
reproduction.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
2. Tissues.
 Composed of cells and intracellular substance, or matrix.
 Contains cells similar to appearance, function, and embryonic
origin.
 Categories
a. Epithelial tissue – covers surfaces, form glands, and lines most cavity of
the body.
b. Muscle tissues – characterized by elongated cells, or fibers, w/c generate
movements by shortening or contracting in a forcible manner.
c. Nerve tissues – composed of nerve cells forming a t coordinating system
of fibers connecting the many sensory and motor structures of the body.
d. Connective tissue – binds together and supports other tissues and organs.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
3. Organs
 Composed of cells integrated into tissues serving a
common function.
4. Systems
 A group of organs.
 The basis for the general srtuctural plan of the body.
1. Integumentary(skin) – made up of the epidermal and
dermal layers.
 Includes hair, nails, sebaceous and sweat glands
 Primary functions are insulation of the body from various
environmental hazards and temperature and water regulation.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
2. Skeletal system – composed of bones and the
cartilagenous and membranous structures associated with
them.
 Protects and supports the soft parts of the body and supplies
levers for body movement.
 Connective tissue predominates in this area.
3. Muscular system is composed of muscles, fascia, tendon
sheaths and bursae.
 3 Types of muscles:
1. Striated – moving the skeletons
2. Smooth – such as the alimentary tract
3. Cardiac – found in the heart.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
4. Nervous system – consists of the brain, spinal cord,
cranial nerves, peripheral nerves and sensory and motor
terminals.
 The correlating and controlling system of the body, intimately
connected with other systems and with the outside world.
 Special senses: visual, hearing, taste and smell.
5. Circulatory system – comprises the heart, arteries, veins,
lymph vessels, and capillaries.
 Pumps and distributes the blood carrying O2, nutrients and
wastes.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
6. Respiratory system – is composed of the air sinuses,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs.
 It is involved in bringing O2 to and in eliminating CO2 from
the blood.
7. Digestive system – includes the alimentary tract, with the
associated glands, from the lips to the anus.
 Converts food into simpler substances that can be absorbed
and utilized by the body.
8. Urinary system – comprises the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra’
 Its chief functions are the formation and elimination of urine
and the maintenance of homeostasis.
STRUCTURAL UNITS
9. Endocrine system – includes the hypophysis (pituitary),
thyroid and parathyroids, suprarenals, pancreatic islets in
the pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal body, and the placenta
(during pregnancy)
 The endocrine glands are involved in the chemical regulation
of body functions.
10. Reproductive system – consists of the ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, vagina and vulva in the female, and the
testes, seminal vesicles, penis, prostrate and urethra in the
male.
THE CELL
IMPORTANCE OF THE CELL
 Human body is composed of cells, matrices
(intercellular materials) and body fluid.
 Only the cells are living, possessing the characteristics
of growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction.
 The basic unit of the body.
 Cells do the work to provide homeostasis.
 The mutually cooperative interactions among cells are
essential for maintaining the structural and functional
integrity of the human organism.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
 An organized unit mass of protoplasm consisting of
two complementary, mutually dependent parts:
1. Nucleus – a more or less the central part, delineated
from surrounding cytoplasm by a delicate nuclear
membrane.
2. Cytoplasm – (G. Kytos) the surrounding part,
bounded externally by a specialized layer, also very
thin and delicate which is called cell or plasma
membrane.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
 Structural functional parts of the cell
1. Cell membrane
2. Nucleus
a. Chromosomes
b. Nucleoli
3. Cytoplasm
a. Cytoplasmic organelles
1) Endoplasmic reticulum
2) Ribosomes
3) Golgi apparatus
4) Mitochondria
5) Lysosomes
6) Centrioles
b. Cytoplasmic inclusions
Cell Membranes
 Protoplasmic surfaces that are denser than the rest of
the protoplasm.
 Acts to regulate interchange between the cell and its
environment and is a site for receiving signals from the
immediate environment or from distance that prompt
adaptive changes essential for maintaining
homeostasis of the cell and organism
 Principal constituents:
1. Phospholipids – basic structure of the membrane.
2. Proteins – responsible for its functional properties.
The Nucleus
 Contains the genetic material of the cell.
 A specialized spherical mass of protoplasm, usually located in the
center of the cell.
 Each cell begins its existence with the nucleus, w/c in occasion can be
lost when the cell mature form.
1. Chromosomes – structure where deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is located.
 Each species has a constant number of chromosomes, and in human, there are 46 in each
cell. (except in sperm and ovum, w/c contain the number)
 Gene – hereditary units occupying specific positions on chromosomes, are segments of
DNA containing coded information for the synthesis of CHON.
 Nucleoplasm – nuclear protoplasm, a typically colorless and transparent.
2. Nucleoli – sites for the synthesis of the RNA (ribonucleic acid)
component of ribosomes and generally become enlarged during periods of
CHON synthesis
Cytoplasm
 Protoplasm outside the nucleus.
 General storage area and working area of the cell.
 Two general types of structures:
1. Organelles – active, organized living material,
converting energy and possessing a surrounding
membrane.
2. Inclusion bodies – passive, often very temporary
materials i.e., pigment, secretory granules, aggregates
of stored CHON, lipids or CHO, w/c will be utilized
by the cell in its life processes.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
1. Endoplasmic reticulum – a network of tubules
a. Rough type, with ribosomes scattered over the surface –
functions in the synthesis of CHONs that are packaged for
secretion or incorporation of lysosomes
b. Smooth type – functions in the synthesis of nonCHON
substances.
2. Ribosomes – dense aggragates of RNA and CHON ,
serving the site of CHON synthesis.
3. Golgi apparatus – saclike vesicles usually found in
stacked piles. Completes the synthesis of and packages
CHON to be secreted or retained in lysosomes.
Cytoplasmic Organelles
4. Lysosomes – bodies containing digestive enzymes
 w/c function, among other things, in the destruction
of harmful microorganisms ff phagocytosis
 breakdown of extracellular matter, as in bone, to
release stored Ca
4. Mitochondria – “the powerhouse of the cell”, where
most of the energy is utilized.
5. Centrioles – paired structures that become the poles of
the cell to w/c chromosomes migrate during cell
dividion.
Physiology of the Cell
1. Movement of substances across cell membranes is
accomplished by
a. Diffusion - movement of solutes from an area of greater concentration
to an area of lesser concentration
b. Osmosis – movement of solvent from an area of lesser concentration to
an area of greater concentration
 Osmotic pressure the force with w/c a solution draws water into it.
 Hypertonic solution – one whose osmotic pressure is greater than the cell.
 Hypotonic solution – osmotic pressure lower than the cell
 Isotonic solution – osmotic pressure the same as the cell’s.
Diffusion and osmosis are referred to as passive transport processes because
the driving force for transport is provided not by the membrane but by
the concentration gradient which causes the movement substance.
Physiology of the Cell
c. Active transport – cell uses energy to transport substances
vs concentration gradient.
d. Pinocytosis – (G: pinein, to drink; kytos, cell); ingestion
of small particulates.
e. Phagocytosis (G: phagein, to eat) ingestion of large
particulates.
Phagocytosis and pinocytosis, is an auxillary means by which
a cell may take in various substances needed for
metabolic processes.
Physiology of the Cell
2. Cell reproduction
Mitosis - cell division: the process by which a cell divides into
two daughter cells, each of which has the same number of
chromosomes as the original cell
TISSUES
Tissues compose all organs and all organ system
The basic unit of the tissue is the cells.
Cells are either tightly packed or separated by interstitial
materials.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Functions in protection (skin), absorption (intestines), secretion
(pancreas/skin) and excretion (pancreas/skin)
 Epithelial tissues are avascular; nutrition and waste removal are
provided by the network of blood vessels in the underlying
connective tissues.
 Classifications:
1. Shape
a. Squamous cells (L: squamosus, scaly) – flat and often serves as a protective layer.
b. Cuboidal cells – resembling small cubes, are found in five regions of the body and
include lining tissue for ducts, secretory glands, renal tubules, pigmented layer of
the eyes, germinal layer of the ovaries.
c. Columnar cells – are tall and often, rectangular. They line ducts such as the urethra
and are found in mucus-secreting tissues, incl. The mucosa of the stomach, bile
ducts, villi (fingerlike projections) of the intestines, URT.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. Arrangement
a. Simple – arrangement has one cell layer.
b. Stratified – multiple layers
c. Pseudostratified – arrangement seems to consist of several
layers, but is actually one layer with all cells resting on a
basement membrane.
d. Transitional epithelium – consists of several layers of closely
packed, soft pliable, and easily stretched cells. When the
surface is stretched, the cells are flat e.g., emptied bladder.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
3. Layers on the free surface
a. Simple squamous – surface layers of serous membranes,
endothelial lining of the heart and blood vessels, respiratory
surface of the lungs
b. Simple cuboidal – glands and ducts, kidney tubules, germinal
covering of the ovaries, pigmented layer of the retina
c. Simple columnar – digestive tract
d. Simple ciliated columnar – bronchioles
e. Stratified squamous – epidermis
f. Pseudostratified columnar – ductus deferens
g. Pseudostratified ciliated columnar – nasopharynx, trachea and
large bronchi
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
4. Function
a. Mucous membrane – lines the digestive, respiratory, urinary and
reproductive tracts; it also lines the conjunctiva and the middle ear.
 These membranes consist of a surface layer of epithelial cells
and an underlying connective tissue (the lamina propia)
b. Glandular epithelium – glands arise as involutions of epithelial
cells , specializes in secreting certain special compounds
 2 types:
1. Exocrine with excretory ducts
2. Endocrine (ductless)
c. Endotheleum _ is found in lymphatic vessels, blood vessels and the
lining of the heart.
 The inner lining of the circulatory system, from the heart,
arteries, into the capillaries and back to the veins.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
d. Mesotheleum – the surface epithelial layer of serous membranes (the
peritoneum, the pleura and the pericardium) that line the closed
cavities of the body.
 Includes the parietal (G: paries, wall) and visceral walls of the
cavities
1) Pleura – serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity enveloping
the lungs
2) Pericardium – serous membrane covering the heart and lining the
inner surface of the of the pericardial sac
3) Peritoneum – the serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity
and covering the abdominal organ.
 Serous membranes’ main function is protection and reduction of
friction.
 The space between the layers contain lubricant secreted by the
mesothelial cells.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Includes connective tissue proper and a number of specialized tissues (such as
bone and cartilages)
 Functions:
1. Support and nourishment for other tissues
2. Packing material in the spaces between organs
3. Defense for the body by phagocytosis and antibody production.
 Abundance of intercellular material called matrix.
 Consists of glycoCHON fibers:
1. Collagen fibers – most widespread and highly inelastic, responsible for the enormous
strength of tissues such as tendons
 Vitamin C is responsible in the formation and maintenance of intercellular matrix and the intra- and
extracellular fluid w/c baths and nourishes cells
2. Elastic fibers – stretchability and resiliency to tissues
3. Reticular fibers – arranged in thin, delicate networks, form part of the basement membrane
to w/c epithelial cells are anchored.
 Vascularization varies i.e., cartilages are avascular
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Not tightly woven.

1. Areolar tissue – most widely distributed connective tissue is flexible and crossed
by many delicate threads that can still resist tearing and somewhat elastic.
 Basic supporting substance around organs, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves, forming
delicate membranes around the brain and spinal cord and composing the superficial
fascia, or sheet of connective tissue, found in deep skin
 Contains
a. Fibroblasts – small flattened, somewhat irregular cells with large nuclei and reduced cytoplasm.
 Ability to form fibrils (fibers) that are active in repair of injury.
b. Histiocytes – phagocytic cells similar to leukocytes in blood but perform the activity outside the
vascular system.
 Often stationary or “fixed”
c. Mast – located adjacent to small blood vessels, are round or polygonal in shape.
 Functions in the manufacture of heparin (anticoagulant) and histamine (inflammatory substance responsible in
allergic reactions)
d. Mesenchymal cells – undifferentiated (embryonic) cells resembling fibroblasts in appearance, but
smaller, have also been identified in loose connective tissues.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. Adipose tissue. (L. Adeps, fat) –specialized areolar tissue

with fat-containing cells.
 Fat cells has nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, cell membrane,
mitochondria, and in addition a large fat droplet (that occupies
most of the cell).
 Acts as a firm yet resilient packing around and between
a. Organs
b. Bundles of muscle fibers
c. Nerves
d. Supporting blood vessels
 Poor conductor of heat, thus, protects the body from excessive
heat loss or excessive rises in temperature.
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
RETICULAR TISSUE

3. Reticular fibers/Tissue – widespread in the body;

 term restricted to sites of where these reticular fibers
are associated with so-called primitive reticular cells,
that gives rise to large phagocytic cells
(macrophages).
 Forms the framework of lymphoid tissue, the liver
and the bone marrow.
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Composed of closely arranged tough collagenous and
elastic fibers with fewer cells than loose connective tissue.
 Classification varies to arrangement of the fibers and the
proportion of elastin and collagen present
 Regular arrangement fibers – tendons, fascia, ligaments
 Irregular arrangement of fibers – capsules, muscle sheaths
and dermis (principal layer of the skin)
 Where elastic fibers predominate, dense connective tissue
is referred to as elastic tissue; e.g., walls of trachea and
bronchi
SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
1. Cartilage – has a firm matrix; covered with dense
connective tissue(perichondrium [G:peri, around]),
except where it is the articular surface of the bone at
synovial (fluid) joints.
 Chondrocytes (G:chondros, cartilage) cells of cartilages;
large and rounded with spherical nuclei and are clustered in
small cavities (lacunae)
 Matrix- imbedded with collagenous and elastic fibers.
 Avascular; nourished by diffusion through the matrix of
substances from perichondrial blood vessels.
 Synovial fluid – nourishes articular cartilage
SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CARTILAGE

 Three Types:
1. Hyaline (G: hyalos, glass) cartilage – precursor of much of the skeletal
system of the fetus in utero.
 Translucent with a clear matrix
 Abundant collagen fibers and cells are scattered throughout the matrix
 In a growing fetus, hyaline is gradually replaced by bones through the process of
ossification
 Examples: incomplete rings of the trachea, nose.
2. Fibrous cartilage – contains dense masses of unbranching collagenous fibers
lying in the matrix.
 Dense and resistant to stretching; less flexible and less resilient than hyaline.
 Interposed between the vertebrae in the spinal column
3. Elastic cartilage – most resilient because of the predominance of elastic
fibers impregnated in its matrix.
> Found in the auricle of the external ear, auditory canal, epiglottis and portion of
larynx.
SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. Bone – firm tissue formed by impregnation of the intercelllular

material with inorganic salts.
 Living tissue supplied by blood vessels and nerves and is constantly
being remodeled.
 Two common types
a. Compact – dense outer layer
b. Cancellous – inner lighter layer
3. Dentin – in teeth, is closely related to bone.
 Closely resembles bone but is harder and denser.
 Crown of the tooth is covered with enamel, the hardest substance in the
body
 Enamel is secreted onto the dentin by the epithelial cells of the enamel
organ before the teeth erupts.
SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
4. Blood and Hematopoietic Tissue
 Red bone marrow is the blood –forming (hematopoietic) tissue.
 The RBCs and WBCs originate in the capillary sinusoids of bone
marrow.
 Blood is a fluid tissue circulating through the body, carrying
nutrients to cells and removing waste products
5. Lymphoid tissue
 Found on the lymph nodes, thymus, spleen and tonsils.
 Forms its framework and lymphocytes lie within the reticular tissue.
 A diffuse form can be found in the mucous membrane, esp.,
digestive and respiratory tract.
 Plays a role in immunity.
SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
6. Reticulo-endothelial system – connective tissue cells carryin gthe process
of phagocytosis.
 AKA the macrophage system
 Components
a. Macrophage distributed throughout LCT – numerous on the digestive and the respiratory
tracts, small blood vessels and lymphatics of subserous connective tissue of the pleura
and peritoneum
b. Macrophages lining the alveoli (terminal air sacs) of the lungs
c. Monocytes of the blood stream
d. Macrophages lining the blood sinuses of the liver (Kupffer cells) and bone marrow
e. Macrophages lining the sinuses of the lymph nodes and spleen (also called large reticular
cells)
f. Microglia of the central nervous system
7. Synovial membranes – line the cavities of the freely moving joints and
form tendons sheaths and bursae.
MUSCLE TISSUE
 Three types of muscle tissues;
1. Striated, or voluntary muscles – has cross-striations
and can be controlled at will
2. Smooth, or involuntary muscles – w/o striations and
is under the control of the autonomic nervous
system.
3. Cardiac muscles – although striated, is found
exclusively in the heart, and is not in voluntary
control.
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Divided into nervous tissue proper and accessory
cells (neurolglia).
 Most highly organized tissue in the body, initiating,
controlling, and coordinating the body’s ability to
adapt to its environment.
 Specialized conducting cells are neurons, linked
together to form nerve pathways
TISSUE TRANSPLANT
DEFINITIONS
 Autotransplant. Transplant to the same individual from

whom the tissue is removed. E.g., skin graft

 Isotransplant. Transplant between individuals of the same

genetic background (identical twins0 or between animals

of nearly the same genetic background (inbreeding)
 Homotransplant. A transplant between two individuals of

the same species with different genetic background.

 Heterotransplant. A transplant between members of two

different species.
FRAMEWORK OF THE BODY
Skin
Skeletal System
Articular System
Muscle system
SKIN
 Description and Importance
 In average adult covers over 3000 square inches of
surface area, weighs approximately 6 lbs (twice the
weight of liver and brain)
 Receives 1/3 of all blood circulating through the body.
 Elastic, rugged and self-regenerating*
 Almost entirely waterproof, providing efficient, closely
regulated thermal barrier and participating in the
dissipation water and temp-regulating fx of the body.
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
EPIDERMIS (G: epi, upon; G: derma, skin)
 Composed of stratified squamous cells.

 Avascular

 Composed of 5 layers

1. Stratum corneum (L: corneus, horny)

 Outermost layer of the epidermis and consists of dead cells completely filled with CHON
keratin (G: keras, horn)
 Commonly called keratinized cells that are continuously shed , requiring replacement
 Consists 20% water
 Serves as the physical barrier to light and heatwaves, microorganisms and most chemicals.
 Thickness of this layer is determined on the amount of stimulation of the surface by
abrasion or weight bearing, e.g., calluses
2. Stratum lucidum
 Directly beneath the s-corneum, not seen in thinner skin.
 Layer of one-five cells thick, consisting of transparent, flattened dead or dying cells,
usually lacking nuclei.
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
3. Stratum granulosum
 2-5layers of flattened cells, provides transitions into subjacent
cells.
 Granules accumulate
 Active in keratinization – process in w/c cells manufacture
keratin and loose their nuclei, becoming more compact and
brittle
4. Stratum spinosum – several rows of prickly cells.
 AKA malphigian layer
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
5. Stratum germinativum – deepest and most important layer of
the skin capable of cell division.
 New cells undergo morphologic and nuclear changes as they move upward
the superficial layer.
 Gives rise to all outer layers of the skin.
 Epidermis will regenerate as long as this layers remain intact.
 Basal layers rests on a basement membrane w/c offers further protection
 Melanin – the principal pigment of the skin is formed in these layer by
melanocytes
 responsible for darker color, stimulated by sunlight.
 Capable of cross-linking with CHON to form tough resistant compound
 Darkly pigmented skin does not contain more active melanocytes
 Carotene – responsible for the yellow color of skin
 Pink tint is cause by vessels of the dermis
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
DERMIS (CORIUM)
 Dense vascular connective tissue containing white

collagenous and yellow elastic fibers.

 Where blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, hair

follicles and sweat glands are embedded.

 Divided into

1. Papillary layer (L: papilla, nipple) – forms corresponding

depression in the overlying epidermis
2. Reticular layer – lying b/w the papillary layer and
subcutaneous (L: sub, layer; cutis, skin) tissue
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
 A sheet of areolar tissue containing fat, known as

SC adipose tissue or superficial fascia

 Attaches dermis to the underlying tissue
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
1. Hair
 Consists of
a. Cuticle – the outer, scale like portion
b. Central cortex – the principal portion
c. Inner medulla – central axis of hair
d. Shaft – the visible portion of the hail
e. Hair follicle – encloses the roots, a tubular invagination of
epidermis surrounded by connective tissue.
f. Papilla – contains blood vessels, w/c provides nutrients, and
nerve endings.
g. Arrector pili muscles – bundles of smooth muscle fibers
attached to the hair follicles; responsible for “goose flesh”
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
SKIN

 Hair color is determined by genetic factors.

 Gray hair occurs when pigment is absent
 White hair results from absence of pigment plus the formation
of air bubbles
 Hair growth occurs by division of matrix cells at the base
of the hair follicle
 Daughter cells move upward and keratinize.
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
2. NAILS
 Modification of the horny epidermal cells.
 Composed of hard keratin
 Lanula – the white crescent at the proximal end of each
nail, formed when air is mixed in the keratin matrix.
 Arise from the proximal nail fold.
 Grow at a rate of approximately 1mm/week
 Regeneration of a lost fingernail – 3 ½ to 5 ½ mos.
 Regeneration of a lost toenail – 6 to 8 mos.
 APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
3. GLANDS
A. Sebaceous – most communicates into hair follicle
 Secretion of sebum consists of the oily substance and cellular debris of disintegrated
cells.
 Secretion increases in puberty and late in pregnancy, declining with age
B. Sweat glands – simple coiled tubular glands
 Ducts of the most common type (eccrine) open directly onto the surface of the skin
 Ducts of the less common type (apocrine) type open into hair follicles;
 These glands are found in the armpits, anogenital area, navel and nipples
1. Eccrine type secretes a watery fluid (containing the same inorganic constituents as in
blood but in lower concentration) in response to elevated temperature
 Eccrine glands in friction surfaces (palms and soles) readily respond to emotional
stimuli
2. Apocrene sweat glands secrete viscous, odorless fluid at the onset of puberty and also
respond to emotional stimuli
3. Ceruminous glands in outer parts of the external auditory meatus and ciliary glands of
the eyelids are modified sweat glands
Identification:
Identify the following items:

The Body as a Whole:

1. Four (4) basic reference systems of organization of the
body (4items with 1pt/item)
2. Two scientific approach in the study of the Human Body (2
items,1pt each)
3. Percentage of water in actual body weight in a normal
human.
4. Basic unit of a living being
5. Cavity that contains the structure of the nervous system
6. Composed of integrated tissues serving a common function
Identification:
Identify the following items:

The Cell
1. Three (3) Functional parts of a cell
2. Known as the powerhouse of the cell
3. Contains the genetic material of the cell
4. An organelle containing digestive hydrolytic enzymes
5. Movement of solute from an area of greater concentration to an area
of lesser concentration
6. Movement of solvent from an area of lesser concentration to an area
of greater concentration
7. The genetic substance of chromosomes
8. Dense aggregates of RNA and CHON serving as sites of protein
synthesis
Matching Type
Location Category
1. Epidermis a. Epithelial tissue
2. Bone b. Muscular tissue
3. Dentin c. Connective tissue
4. Lymph nodes d. Muscular tissue
5. Heart e. Nervous tissue
6. Neurons
7. Subcutaneous fat
8. Glands
9. Alveoli
10. Tendons
Arrange in proper order from the outermost to the
innermost layer

Layers of the skin

1. ___________ a. stratum spinosum
2. ___________ b. stratum germinativum
3. ___________ c. stratum lucidum
4. ___________ d. stratum corneum
5. ___________ e. stratum granulosum