Ee 5103

INSTRUMENTATION
AND
CONTROL
Engr. Caesar Rico S. Acanto
Measurement
• Whether exploring Mars, measuring the
brain’s electrical signals for diagnostic
purposes or setting up robots on an
assembly line, measurement is everywhere.
In all human activities, the idea of
measurement establishes a relationship
between a natural or artificial phenomenon
and a group of symbols, usually numbers,
in order to create the most reliable
representation possible. This representation
is classified according to an “orderly” scale
of values.
Measurement
• Measurement is the basis of
scientific and industrial research.
It allows us to understand the
phenomena we observe in our
environment by means of
experimental deduction and
verification and helps us keep
records of the results of these
observations.
Measurement
• Measurement therefore brings
together knowledge and
technological progress. Universal
and essential to many disciplines,
it is, in fact, fundamental to most
human activity.
Measurement
• Steps of progress in measurement according to human
needs as these emerged throughout history:
1. the need to master the environment
(dimensional and geographical aspects);
2. the need to master means of production
(mechanical and thermal aspects);
3. the need to create an economy (money and
trade);
4. the need to master and control energy
(electrical, thermal, mechanical, and hydraulic
aspects);
5. the need to master information (electronic and
optoelectronic aspects).
Measurement
• Measurement- a set of operations having the
object of determining the value of a quantity.
(International Vocabulary of Basic and General
Terms in Metrology (VIM))
• Measurable quantity- an attribute of a
phenomenon, body or substance, which can be
distinguished qualitatively and determined
quantitatively.
• Metrology- the science and “grammar” of
measurement. The field of knowledge concerned
with measurement.
Measurement
Measurement
• Knowledge fields have always grown
according to measurement systems.
“Experience” and “theory” interact
and link together the “real world” and
the “mathematical world”. These
interactions lead to overall progress in
scientific knowledge, with attendant
technological advances that in turn
benefit many disciplines.
Instrumentation
• The term instrumentation refers to a
group of permanent systems which
help us measure objects and maintain
retroactive control of a process. In this
sense, instruments and systems of
measurement constitute the “tools” of
measurement and metrology.
Functions of Instruments
• Indicating (meters)
• Recording (data loggers)
• Controlling (PID’s)
Instrumentation
Measurement systems - these are
instruments used to establish the size
of objects being scientifically tested.
This kind of situation occurs in
scientific experiments and industrial
test trials to acquire information and
data concerning the tested object.
This data can be processed in real
time or in batch mode.
Instrumentation
Control systems - in addition to
measuring objects, these instruments
are also used to exert control over the
feedback process. Figure 1.2 shows
the conventional diagram of a
measurement and control system.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation
Measuring transducer - a
measurement device which provides
an output quantity having a given
relationship to the input quantity.
Sensor - the element of a measuring
instrument or a measuring chain to
which a measurand is directly applied.
Classification Criteria of Instruments
Measuring Instrument Model
Measuring Instrument Model
• Measurand - quantities subjected to measurement.
• Influence quantities - quantities which are not the
subject of measurement but which influence the value of
the measurand or the indication of a measuring
instrument.
• Interfering quantities - i(t) to which the system is
unintentionally sensitive. The instrument takes their
effects as disturbance that is taken into account as a
supplementary transfer function that modifies output
additively.
• Modifying quantities - m(t) that are all quantities capable
of reacting on partial transfer functions when a
temporary or permanent change in the structure of the
instrument occurs.
Characteristics of an instrument
• To determine the design or choice
of an instrument, we must
consider the following three
aspects:
• how we wish to use the instrument
and for which purposes;
• whether it is an isolated system or
connected to other systems;
• the features of the measurand and
Characteristics of an instrument
Components of static transfer functions
• Static calibration summarizes
measurement system performances when
all the input variables are maintained
constant, excepting one which is varied by
step by step. Output variables are collected
according to steady-state functioning.
These static transfer characteristics only
make sense if static calibration conditions
are established. In particular, variable
values must remain constant, clear and
exact.
Dynamic Characteristics
• Transfer characteristics do not easily combine
when expressed in the form of transfer
characteristics. One way of viewing an instrument
is to see it as a black box with a known relation
between the input (excitation) and the output
(measured signal). This relationship is a transfer
function S = f (s). It can be linear (S = a + ks) or
non-linear (logarithmic, exponential, or
polynomial). Often the gradient b is designated as
sensitivity. In non-linear cases, sensitivity is not
constant but is a variable that may be expressed
at any point as xo by k = d(S in xo)/ds.
Principles and methodology of measurement
• Many different situations may present themselves

during a measurement operation. With the goal of
measuring quantity, ascertaining this quantity begins
with designing, choosing, defining and implementing:
• a measurement principle that serves as a scientific base for a
measurement method;
• a measurement method or a group of theoretical and practical
operations usually implemented during measurement
according to a procedure;
• an operating mode of measurement or a precise series of
theoretical and practical operations implemented during
measurement according to a procedure;
• a measurement process or the sum of data, equipment and
operations relating to a given measurement.
Fundamental method of measurement
• a method of measurement by
which the value of a measurand
is determined by measurement of
the base quantities
Physical principles determining variable acquisition results
• accessible real parameters: these include the

temperature of an oven, a current going through
an element (resistance), or a person’s height;
• inaccessible real parameters: some of these are
dielectric permittivity and conductivity of the
brain, the pH factor of Jupiter’s subsoil, real time
thermal cartography of a plane taking off, and a
person’s age;
• inaccessible unreal parameters: some of these
include negative time, ECG readings, temperatures
below absolute zero and negative frequencies.
Two classes of measurement
 direct methods of measurement: with

these methods, we directly obtain the
value of measured variable rather than
measuring other, functionally related
variables;
 indirect methods of measurement: with
these methods, the value of a
measured variable is obtained by
measuring other, functionally related
variables.
Three measurement principles
• the principle of direct measurement: here, the

measured object serves as an energy vector,
carrying information to the measuring system;
• comparison method of measurement: in this
indirect system, energy is carried by an external
auxiliary system;
• substitution method of measurement: this system
has conditions of the two above systems.
• result of the measurement - the value of a measurand
obtained by measurement.
Electronic instrumentation
Types of Instrument Signals

• Continuous signals are static or vary slowly. With these signals, the
level or amplification of the signal at any instant constitutes the
information. While sensors (such as the thermocouple) may be used for
measurement of these signals, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
converts the signal into digital data. The precision, resolution, reliable
pass band, and good synchronization of the ADC ensure parameters
essential to continuous analog signal acquisition.
• Temporal signals, information is carried in the form of waves (amplitude
and variation in time). Temporal signal acquisition means using the
largest pass band possible and a precise time base (to avoid sampling
problems), ensuring transfer speed, as well as beginning and ending
the measurement sequence correctly.
• Frequential domain signals contain information in signal frequency
variations. Analyzing this type of signal involves converting the
measurement into frequential data. Increasingly, specialized processors
carry out this analysis, which includes Fourier’s analysis functions.
The signal is a definition criterion of an instrumentation procedure
Classification of electronic instrumentation
• sensors associated with electronic conditioning. Groups of these make

up an autonomous instrument. This kind of instrument gives a directly
usable measurement; they can also be combined with other groups
containing several more sensors. This means a pressure sensor can act
as a surveillance device that gives instructions to an actuator; it can
also be part of a network of several sensors supervised by a main
microcomputer;
• instruments configured around a microcontroller. Another important
field of electronic instrumentation includes measurement and control
chains configured around an intelligent circuit. This pertains to many
systems dedicated to a specific application characterized by reduced
size, autonomy and reduced cost. In everyday living, this type of
instrument plays a role in machines such as cars and household
appliances, mostly because of their low cost, portability or small size;
• programmable electronic instruments. These are groups of instruments
that have been configured to carry out customized functions according
to the operator’s needs. They are directed by computer
instrumentation software.
An analog measurement chain
Programmable instrumentation
The role of instrumentation in quality control
• Throughout the world, the label “ISO 9000” has become a

point of reference for companies wishing to maintain,
guarantee and record the quality of their products through
quality control. These businesses need measurement
instruments and standardized tests based on national
norms. Overall, instrumentation and measurement play a
crucial role in commercial quality control.
• Traceability - the property of a

measurement whereby it can be
related to appropriate standards,
generally international or national
standards, through an unbroken
chain of comparisons.
Definition of Terms
• Zero offset - Zero offset is true relation of the zero
output variable with the value of the measurand.
• Drift - Temporal variations in system
characteristics.
• Dynamic - Admissible intervals of variation for
input variables.
• Hysteresis - Maximum difference in output
values, when the input variable is reached from
minimum, then maximum admissible in algebraic
value.
Definition of Terms
• Linearity - Degree of concordance between
the static state diagram and a straight line
used as reference.
• Relaxation - Time lag between the cause and
effect of a physical phenomenon, given in the
form of a time constant.
• Repeatability - Margin of fluctuation in output
variable when the same input variable is
applied several times under the same
conditions.
Definition of Terms
• Resolution - Smallest increase in the input variable
leading to a change in the output variable.
• Sensitivity - Ratio of change in output variables to
the corresponding change in input variables.
• Threshold - Threshold resolution is the smallest
change of the input variable relative to zero value.
• Response time - For a measurable excitation, this
is the time required for an immediate value and a
final value to be lower than a specified value.
Units and Standards
• The measurement and control of physical
properties require the use of well-defined
units. Units commonly used today are
defined in either the English system or the
Systéme International d’Unités (SI) system.
The advent of the Industrial Revolution,
developing first in England in the eighteenth
century, showed how necessary it was to
have a standardized system of
measurements.
Units
• The SI system of units is maintained by the
Conférence Genérale des Poids et
Measures.
• The English system has been the standard
used in the United States.
Basic Units
Derived Units
SI Derived Units
SI Derived Units
Standard Prefixes
Standards
• Physical Constants
• Standards Institutions - for uniformity of
measurement and conformity between
systems.
Types of Standards
• International Standard – evaluated and checked by
absolute measurement in term of fundamental units of
physics.
• Primary Standard – maintained by the national
laboratories in each country. They are not available for
outside of national laboratories.
• Secondary Standard – basic reference standard used by
calibration laboratories in the industry to which they
belong.
• Working Standard – they are used to check and calibrate
the instruments used in the laboratory to make
comparison measurements in industrial application.
Physical Constants
Instrumentation Symbols
• In instrumentation diagrams standard
symbols are used. Complete industry
standard for instruments symbols and
lettering abbreviations are in the controlled
document ANSI/ISA-5.1.
• ANSI – American National Standard
• ISA – Instrumentation Systems and
Automation Society
Common Process Variables
The common process variables are:

• Analysis (A): Analyzer function
• Flow (F): Volume flow rate measure
• Level (L): Capacity measure
• Pressure (P): Operating pressure
• Temperature (T): Operating temperature
Piping Instruments
• Valves are the most common type of
instruments in piping systems. They
are used to isolate equipment and
piping devices, regulate flow, prevent
backflow, regulate and relieve
pressure. Popular valves are gate,
globe and control valves.
Piping Instruments
• The sensing instruments or
sensors are called primary
elements such as flow element
(FE), pressure element (PE),
temperature element (TE), level
element (LE), and analyzer or
analysis element (AE).
Instrument Types and Symbols
• The common types of instruments in piping

processes are:
• Gauge (G): Measures level or value of a variable
• Alarm (A): Signals (light or sound) when variable
value is out of range
• Indicator (I): Indicates level or value of a variable
• Recorder (R): Records level or value of a
variable
• Controller (C): Uses variable signal level to
control instrument
Piping Instruments
• Gauges measure the pressure,
temperature or liquid level in
equipment. Indicators display
the level of process
parameters.
Piping Instruments
• Recorders record the level of
process parameters while
controllers are used to activate
other devices so as to maintain a
specific level of a process
parameter.
Piping Instruments
• Alarms produce light or sound
signals when operating levels of
process parameters are too high
or too low. They are also activated
when there is no flow or a back
flow occurs.
Piping Instruments
• Instrument indicators, such as
pressure (PI), temperature (TI),
volume flow (FI), and volume level
(LI) are very vital for operating
piping systems. They may be
mounted directly on the pipe
branch or on a central panel.
Instrument symbols
Instrument symbols
Instrument symbols
Instrument and mounting
Instrument function abbreviation
Instrument Identification
The letters are FE and the numbers are

150.
FE……. Flow Element (Function
abbreviation)
150…… Loop reference number
Loop Numbers
• A loop number groups all instruments
monitoring and controlling a process
variable into one control unit. Equipment
may have several loop numbers
associated with it if more than one
process variables must be controlled for
proper functioning. Loop numbers are
normally assigned by designers or
engineers.
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram
• Symbolic representation of a plant,
with its equipment, piping, and
instrumentation clearly identified. It
is the basis for all detail
engineering work. Also known as
Mechanical Flow Diagram (MFD).
P&ID Example
Instrument Error
• Error – the difference between the
measured value and the expected value. It
is also known as the absolute error of
measurement.
• Error(e) = x - xtrue
x – expected or theoretical value
xtrue – measured value
• Percentage error – the absolute error
divided by the expected value.
Examples
• The expected value of the voltage across a
resistor is 50V, however the measurement
yields 49V. Calculate the absolute error
and the percent error.
• The current through a resistor is 1.5A but
measurement yields a value of 1.46A.
Compute the absolute error and the
percent error of the measurement.
Instrument Error
• %e = x – xtrue x 100%
x
• Accuracy - The maximum expected difference in
magnitude between measured and true values
(often expressed as a percentage of the full-scale
value).
• Precision - The ability of the instrument to repeat
the measurement of a constant measurand. More
precise measurements have less random error.
Instrument Error
• A = 1 – x – xtrue
x
where: A = accuracy
• P = 1- xtrial – xave
xave
where: P = precission
xtrial = trial measurement
xave = average value of the
measurement set
Examples
• The value of the resistor is 2k, however the
measurement yields 1.93k. Compute the
relative accuracy and the percent accuracy of the
measurement.
• The output voltage of an amplifier was measured
by six different student using the same
oscilloscope with the following results; 20.20V,
19.90V, 20.05V, 20.10V, 19.85V, 20.00V. Which is
the most precise measurement?
Types of Instrument Errors
• Gross error – the error is due to the
person using the instrument, such as
incorrect reading of instrument,
incorrect recording of experimental
data, or incorrect use of instrument.
• Systematic Error – this error is due to
the problem in the instrument,
environmental effect, or observational
error. These error recur if several
measurements are made of the same
quantity under the same condition.
• Random Error – this are errors that
remain after the gross and systematic
error have been substantially reduced
or at least accounted for. It is the
accumulation of a large number of
small effects and maybe of real
concern only in measurements
requiring high degree of accuracy.
Error Reduction in Instruments
• Experimental solutions - physical in nature
and are closely related to influence variables
and load effects. They are implemented in
design before measurement occurs.
• Statistical solutions - are mathematical in
nature. They are part of the analysis and
correction of results and are carried out after
measurement has taken place, since a
measurement must be made before it can be
corrected.
Experimental Solution
• Calibration
• Noise Reduction
• Electric field coupling of noise can be
reduced by using shielded cables.
• Magnetically coupled noise is reduced by
using coaxial or twisted-pair cables.
• Maintenance
Statistical Solution
• Standard deviation - a series of n
measurements of the same
measurand, the parameter s
characterizing the dispersion of
the results.
Standard Deviation
xi being the result of the ith

measurement and x being the arithmetic
mean of the n results considered.
Examples
• Eight resistors having a color-coded value of
5.6k were measured and found to have the
following values. Determine the standard
deviation of the batch. Resist Value (k)
or
1 5.75
2 5.60
3 5.65
4 5.50
5 5.70
6 5.55
7 5.80
8 5.55
Examples
• A circuit is tuned for Reading Frequency (kHz)
resonance by eight
different students, and 1 532
the following values for 2 548
the resonant frequency 3 543

of the circuit were 4 535
recorded. Compute the 5 546
arithmetic mean, the 6 531
average deviation, and 7 543
the standard deviation
8 536
for the readings.
Limiting Error
• Most manufacturers of measuring
instrument state that an instrument is
accurate within a certain percentage of a
full scale reading. This specification is
called the limiting error and means that a
full-scale reading is guaranteed to be within
the limits of a perfectly accurate reading.
The lower is the limiting error, the better for
an instrument.
Examples
• A voltmeter is accurate to 98% of its
full-scale reading. If the voltmeter
reads 175V in a 300V-range what is
the absolute error of the reading?
• It is desired to determine the voltage
to within one part in 300. What
accuracy of the meter is required?
Types of Circuit Meters
• In-circuit Meters - used to monitor the
operation of the device in which it is
installed.
• Out-of-circuit Meters - a meter that can
be connected to the electrical or
electronic equipment at various testing
points and may be moved from one
piece of equipment to another.
Types of Meter Movement
• Compass And Conducting Wire - When the battery is
connected, current flows through the circuit and the
compass needle aligns itself with the magnetic field of the
conductor, as indicated by the solid compass needle. The
strength of the magnetic field created around the
conductor is dependent upon the amount of current. The
basic principle of this device is the interaction of magnetic
fields-the field of the compass (a permanent magnet) and
the field around the conductor (a simple electromagnet).
• Galvanometers - instrument that measures small
amounts of current and is based on the electromagnetic
principle.
COMPASS AND CONDUCTING

WIRE
• Permanent-magnet Moving-coil Movement -
based upon a fixed permanent magnet and a coil
of wire which is able to move. When the switch is
closed, causing current through the coil, the coil
will have a magnetic field which will react to the
magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The
bottom portion of the coil will be the north pole of
this electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract,
the coil will move to the position.
Permanent Magnet Moving

Coil
• To use this permanent-magnet moving-coil device as a meter, two
problems must be solved. First, a way must be found to return the
coil to its original position when there is no current through the
coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the amount of coil
movement. The first problem is solved by the use of hairsprings
attached to each end of the coil. These hairsprings can also be
used to make the electrical connections to the coil. With the use of
hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when there is
no current. The springs will also tend to resist the movement of
the coil when there is current through the coil. When the attraction
between the magnetic fields (from the permanent magnet and the
coil) is exactly equal to the force of the hairsprings, the coil will
stop moving toward the magnet
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil with hair spring

• The permanent-magnet moving-coil meter
movement is the basic movement in most
measuring instruments. It is commonly
called the d’Arsonval movement because it
was first employed by the Frenchman
d’Arsonval in making electrical
measurements.
• PMMC can be used in AC measurement by
employing a rectifier to convert AC to DC.
• Damping - The process of "smoothing out" the oscillation of the
pointer.
• The first method of damping comes from the d’Arsonval meter
movement itself. In the d’Arsonval meter movement, current
through the coil causes the coil to move in the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet. This movement of the coil (conductor)
through a magnetic field causes a current to be induced in the
coil opposite to the current that caused the movement of the coil.
This induced current will act to damp oscillations. In addition to
this method of damping, which comes from the movement itself,
most meters use a second method of damping.
• The second method of damping used in most meter movements
is an airtight chamber containing a vane (like a windmill vane)
attached to the coil.
• Electrodynamic Meter Movement- uses the
same basic operating principle as the basic
moving-coil meter movement, except that the
permanent magnet is replaced by fixed coils . A
moving coil, to which the meter pointer is
attached, is suspended between two field coils
and connected in series with these coils. The
three coils (two field coils and the moving coil) are
connected in series across the meter terminals so
that the same current flows through each.
• Current flow in either direction through the three coils
causes a magnetic field to exist between the field coils.
The current in the moving coil causes it to act as a
magnet and exert a turning force against a spring. If the
current is reversed, the field polarity and the polarity of
the moving coil reverse at the same time, and the turning
force continues in the original direction. Since reversing
the current direction does not reverse the turning force,
this type of meter can be used to measure both ac and
dc if the scale is changed. While some voltmeters and
ammeters use the electrodynamic principle of operation,
the most important application is in the wattmeter .
• Moving-vane Meter Movements -The
moving-vane meter movement
(sometimes called the moving-iron
movement) is the most commonly
used movement for ac meters. The
moving-vane meter operates on the
principle of magnetic repulsion
between like poles.
• The current to be measured flows through a coil,
producing a magnetic field which is proportional to the
strength of the current. Suspended in this field are two
iron vanes. One is in a fixed position, the other, attached
to the meter pointer, is movable. The magnetic field
magnetizes these iron vanes with the same polarity
regardless of the direction of current flow in the coil. Since
like poles repel, the movable vane pulls away from the
fixed vane, moving the meter pointer. This motion exerts a
turning force against the spring. The distance the vane will
move against the force of the spring depends on the
strength of the magnetic field, which in turn depends on
the coil current.
• One of the major disadvantages of this
type of meter movement occurs due to
the high reluctance of the magnetic
circuit. This causes the meter to
require much more power than the
D’Arsonval meter to produce a full
scale deflection, thereby reducing the
meters sensitivity.
• Hot-wire And Thermocouple Meter
Movements - use the heating effect of
current flowing through a resistance to
cause meter deflection. Each uses this
effect in a different manner. Since their
operation depends only on the heating
effect of current flow, they may be used to
measure both direct current and alternating
current of any frequency on a single scale.
• The hot-wire meter movement deflection depends on
the expansion of a high-resistance wire caused by
the heating effect of the wire itself as current flows
through it. A resistance wire is stretched taut between
the two meter terminals, with a thread attached at a
right angle to the center of the wire. A spring
connected to the opposite end of the thread exerts a
constant tension on the resistance wire. Current flow
heats the wire, causing it to expand. This motion is
transferred to the meter pointer through the thread
and a pivot.
• The thermocouple meter consists of a resistance wire
across the meter terminals, which heats in proportion to
the amount of current. Attached to this wire is a small
thermocouple junction of two unlike metal wires, which
connect across a very sensitive dc meter movement
(usually a d’Arsonval meter movement). As the current
being measured heats the heating resistor, a small current
(through the thermocouple wires and the meter
movement) is generated by the thermocouple junction.
The current being measured flows through only the
resistance wire, not through the meter movement itself.
The pointer turns in proportion to the amount of heat
generated by the resistance wire
Types of Electrical Meters
• Ammeter – a device that measures current.
• Ammeters are connected in series with the load
or the source. In DC current measurement the
polarity of the current must be observed
especially if the ammeter is an analog one.
• Connecting an ammeter in parallel would result in
not only an incorrect measurement, it would also
damage the ammeter, because too much current
would pass through the meter.
Ammeter Circuit
Where:
I – total current
Im – meter current
Rm – internal meter
resistance
Rsh – shunt
resistance
Ish – shunt current
Vm – meter voltage
Examples
• Calculate the voltage drop
developed across a D’Arsonval
meter movement having an
internal resistance of 850Ω and a
full-scale deflection of 100uA.
• Ammeter sensitivity - is the amount of current necessary
to cause full scale deflection (maximum reading) of the
ammeter.
• Sensitivity can be given for a meter movement, but the
term "ammeter sensitivity" usually refers to the entire
ammeter and not just the meter movement.
• An ammeter consists of more than just the meter
movement.
1 Rm
• Where:
S 
• S= sensitivity
Im( full _ scale ) Vm
• Im = meter current
• Vm = meter voltage
• Rm = meter resistance
Examples
• Calculate the half-scale current of a
meter movement that has a sensitivity
of 20kΩ/V.
• By adding several shunt resistors
in the meter case, with a switch to
select the desired resistor, the
ammeter will be capable of
measuring several different
maximum current readings or
ranges.
Examples
• Calculate the value of the shunt
resistance required to convert a 1-
mA meter movement with 100Ω
internal resistance into a 0 to
10mA ammeter.
Multiplying factor
• The multiplying factor relates the
total current I and the meter
current Im.
• I = nIm
Where:
n – multiplying factor
Examples
• A 100 uA meter movement with
an internal resistance of 800Ω
is used in a 0 to 100 mA
ammeter. Find the value of he
required shunt resistance.
Ayrton Shunt
• Also known as the universal shunt are
used in a multiple range ammeter.
• One advantage of the Ayrton shunt is that it
eliminates the possibility of the meter
movement being in the circuit without any
shunt resistance.
• Another advantage of the Ayrton shunt is
that it can be used with a wide range of
meter movements.
Ayrton Shunt
Formula
Rm I1
Rsh  n
n 1 Im
Im( Rsh  Rm)
R1  R 2  R3 
I2
Im( Rsh  Rm)

R1  R 2 
I3
Im( Rsh  Rm)

R1 
I4
Example
• Design a multi-range ammeter
with ranges 10mA, 100mA, and 1A
using an Ayrton shunt. The meter
current is 100uA and the internal
resistance is 1kΩ.
• Part of the correct use of an ammeter is the
proper use of the range selection switch. If the
current to be measured is larger than the scale of
the meter selected, the meter movement will have
excessive current and will be damaged.
Therefore, it is important to always start with the
highest range when you use an ammeter. If the
current can be measured on several ranges, use
the range that results in a reading near the
middle of the scale.
Ammeter Safety Precautions
• Ammeters must always be connected in series with the
circuit under test.
• Always start with the highest range of an ammeter.
• De-energize and discharge the circuit completely before
you connect or disconnect the ammeter.
• In dc ammeters, observe the proper circuit polarity to
prevent the meter from being damaged.
• Never use a dc ammeter to measure ac.
• Observe the general safety precautions of electrical and
electronic devices.
Insertion Effects
• The resistance of the ammeter
increases the resistance of the circuit
thereby reducing the current.
Example
• A circuit is composed of RB= 1kΩ and
RC = 1kΩ connected in parallel. The
combination is then connected in
series with RA = 1kΩ and is supplied
by a 3V source. If an ammeter with an
internal resistance of 78Ω is utilized to
measure the current across RC, what
will be the error of the measurement?
Voltmeters – meters that are
designed to measure voltage in the
circuit. In order to handle large
magnitude of voltage, the voltmeter
employs a multiplying resistance
connected in series with the meter
movement.
Voltmeter
Where:
Rs – multiplying
resistor
Rm – meter internal
resistance
Im – meter current
V – voltage to be
measured
Formula
1
S
Im( full _ scale )
Rs  S  Range  Rm
Examples
• Calculate the value of the multiplier
resistance on the 50V range of a DC
voltmeter that uses a 500uA meter
movement with an internal resistance of 1kΩ.
• Find the value of a multiplier resistance
required to convert a 200uA meter
movement to a 0 to 150V Dc voltmeter. The
internal resistance of the meter movement is
1kΩ.
Multi-Range Voltmeter
Formula
R1  S  V 1  Rm
R1  R 2  S  V 2  Rm
R1  R 2  R3  S  V 3  Rm
Example
• Calculate the value of the multiplier
resistances R1 through R5 for a multi-
range voltmeter with 1V, 5V, 10V, 50V, and
100V ranges. The meter movement has an
internal resistance of 2kΩ and a full scale
current of 50uA.
Loading Effect
• The resistance of the voltmeter
becomes in parallel with the load when
being used. This causes the
resistance of the load to reduce
causing an error in the value of the
voltage being registered by the
voltmeter.
Examples
• A series circuit comprised of E = 30V, RA = 25kΩ,
and RB = 5kΩ is to be tested. Two voltmeter are
used to measure the voltage across RB. Meter A
has a sensitivity of 1kΩ/V, an internal resistance
of 0.2kΩ and a range of 10V. Meter B has a
sensitivity of 20kΩ/V, an internal resistance of
1.5kΩ and a range of 10V. Find the following:
a. voltage across RB without the meters
b. voltage reading with meter A
c. voltage reading with meter B
d. error in the readings
• OHMMETER – an ohmmeter is composed
of a meter movement, a source, and a zero
adjustment resistance.
Ohmmeter
Example
• A 1mA meter movement is to be used to
construct an ohmmeter. The meter
movement has an internal resistance of
100Ω and a 3V battery as the source of the
circuit. Compute the value of Rz and the
value of the unknown resistance that will
create a deflection of 20%, 40%, 50%, and
75% in the meter face.
Multi-range Ohmmeter
DC Bridges
• circuits that make use of a null-balance meter to
compare two voltages, just like the laboratory
balance scale compares two weights and
indicates when they’re equal. Unlike the
”potentiometer” circuit used to simply measure
an unknown voltage, bridge circuits can be used
to measure all kinds of electrical values, not the
least of which being resistance.
• The most common DC bridge is the Wheatstone
bridge.
DC Bridges
DC Bridges
• When the voltage between point 1 and the
negative side of the battery is equal to the
voltage between point 2 and the negative
side of the battery, the null detector will
indicate zero and the bridge is said to be
”balanced.” The bridge’s state of balance is
solely dependent on the ratios of Ra/Rb
and R1/R2, and is quite independent of the
supply voltage (battery).
DC Bridges
• To measure resistance with a Wheatstone
bridge, an unknown resistance is
connected in the place of Ra or Rb, while
the other three resistors are precision
devices of known value. Either of the other
three resistors can be replaced or adjusted
until the bridge is balanced, and when
balance has been reached the unknown
resistor value can be determined from the
ratios of the known resistances.
DC Bridges
DC Bridges
• Each of the four resistances in a
bridge circuit are referred to as arms.
The resistor in series with the
unknown resistance Rx (this would be
Ra in the above schematic) is
commonly called the rheostat of the
bridge, while the other two resistors
are called the ratio arms of the bridge.
DC Bridges
• Wheatstone bridges are considered a superior means of
resistance measurement to the series battery-movement-
resistor meter circuit discussed in the last section. Unlike
that circuit, with all its nonlinearities (nonlinear scale) and
associated inaccuracies, the bridge circuit is linear.
• Given standard resistances of sufficient precision and a
null detector device of sufficient sensitivity, resistance
measurement accuracies of at least +/- 0.05% are
attainable with a Wheatstone bridge. It is the preferred
method of resistance measurement in calibration
laboratories due to its high accuracy.
DC Bridges
• Kelvin Double bridge, used for
measuring very low resistances
(typically less than 1/10 of an ohm).
• Additional resistance are added to
compensate the stray resistances
presented by the connecting wires of
the circuit.
DC Bridges
DC Bridges
• With ratio Rm/Rn set equal to ratio RM/RN,
rheostat arm resistor Ra is adjusted until
the null detector indicates balance, and
then we can say that Ra/Rx is equal to
RM/RN, or simply find Rx by the following
equation:
RN
Rx  Ra
RM
Applications
• Resistance measurement.
• Fault/ short circuit distance
measurement.
• Murray Loop Test
• Varley Loop Test
Examples
Calculate the value of Rx if R1 =400Ω,

R2 = 5kΩ,and R3 = 2kΩ.
Examples
In the bridge circuit R1 = 400Ω and R2 = 5kΩ.

What range must R3 have in order to measure
the unknown resistor in the range of 1Ω to
100kΩ?
Examples
Calculate the current through the galvanometer in

the circuit.
Examples
If the sensitivity of the galvanometer is 10mm/uA,

determine its deflection.
Examples
The Murray loop test set consist of two conductors of the

same material and cross-sectional area. Both cables are
connected 5280 ft from the test set-up at the cable terminal.
The bridge is balanced when R1 = 100Ω and R2 is 300Ω.
Find the distance from the ground fault to the test set.
Examples
A Varley loop test set consist of a defective conductor and a healthy one
connected in a cable terminal located 10 miles from the test set. The cables
have a resistance of 0.05Ω/1000 ft. When the switch is in position a, the
circuit is balanced with R1 = 1k, R2 = 2k, and R3 = 100Ω. When the switch is
in position b, the circuit is rebalanced and R3 = 99Ω. Find the distance of the
ground fault to the test set.
AC Voltage and Current Measuring Instruments
• PMMC
• Electrodynamometer
• Iron Vane
• Electrostatic
• Thermocouple
PMMC
• PMMC can be used to measure AC signal when the AC
signal is rectified using a diode. A half wave or full wave
rectification can be utilized. It will transform the RMS(AC)
value of the signal to average (DC) which can now be
measured by the PMMC.
Formula
V max For full-wave:
Vrms 
2
Vave  0.636V max
For half-wave:
Vave  0.90Vrms
Vave  0.318V max
S AC  0.90 S DC
Vave  0.45Vrms
S AC  0.45S DC
Example
• An AC voltmeter is designed using a PMMC with a shunt
resistor. The internal resistance of the meter movement is
200Ω and the full scale current is 100uA. The value of the
shunt resistor connected in parallel with the meter
movement is 200Ω. If the meter will employ a half wave
rectifier where the diode has an internal resistance of 50Ω
in the forward bias, determine the following:
a. The multiplier resistor to be used if the meter is to have
a range of 10Vrms.
b. The AC sensitivity of the meter.
c. the DC sensitivity of the meter.
Example
• A series circuit with E=20Vrms, R1=25k, and R2=15k is to
be measured for its voltage in the 15k resistance. The
voltmeter used is a half-wave rectified PMMC with a full
scale deflection of 100uA and an internal resistance of
1.5k. If the meter has a range of 10Vrms, what is the
reading obtained?
Example
• A PMMC meter movement with a full scale current of
200uA and an internal resistance of 500Ω is to be used in
an AC voltmeter using full wave rectification. Calculate:
a. The value of multiplier resistor if it has the range of
50Vp-p.
b. The AC sensitivity.
Electrodynamic Meters
• Electrodynamic meters (or dynamometers) can measure
both d.c. signals and a.c. signals up to a frequency of 2
kHz.
• A current sensitive device.
• The torque is proportional to current2.
• It uses a square law meter scale.
• It is used as transfer instrument and standard instrument
because of its accuracy.
Electrodynamic Meters
• It can handle more current than the PMMC without shunt
resistor.
• It is often used in the construction of wattmeters ,
varmeters, frequency meters, and power factor meters.
Example
• An electrodynamic movement with a full scale deflection
current rating of 10mA is to be used as a 1A ammeter. If
the resistance of the moving coil is 40Ω, what is the value
of the shunt?
Wattmeters
• When an electrodynamic meter is used as a wattmeter,
the field coil becomes the current coil and the moving coil
is the potential coil.
• The deflection of the pointer is measured using the
formula:
• Where:
m  KmEI cos 
θm – angle of deflection
Km – instrument constant (degrees/watt)
E – rms value of the source voltage
I – rms value of the source current
θ – phase angle of the source
Example
• A wattmeter uses an electrodynamic movement with
Km=8º/W is used to measure the power dissipated in an
ac circuit. If the applied voltage of 100Vrms produces a
current of 0.5A with a power factor of 0.8, what is the
angle of deflection by the pointer?
Iron Vane (Moving Iron) Movement Meters
• It can measure d.c. and a.c. signals at frequencies up to 125
Hz.
• It is the cheapest form of meter available and, consequently,
this type of meter is also commonly used for measuring
voltage signals.
• The majority of moving-iron instruments are either of the
attraction type or of the repulsion type. A few instruments
belong to a third combination type.
• It uses a square law scale.
• The hysteresis or magnetic lag of the Iron Vane causes some
considerable error.
• It is very sensitive to frequency change.
• Normally used in cheap automotive meters.
Thermocouple meters
• It consist of a heater element or the thermocouple and a
PMMC meter movement.
• It can be used to measure AC and DC signals. For AC
measurement it is designed to measure high frequency
AC signals.
• It is accurate up to 50MHz.
Thermocouple Meter
Watt-hour Meter
• is essentially an induction motor whose speed is directly
proportional to the voltage applied and the amount of
current flowing through it. The phase displacement of the
current, as well as the magnitude of the current, is
automatically taken into account by the meter.
• the power factor influences the speed, and the moving
element (disk) rotates with a speed proportional to true
power. The register is simply a means of registering
revolutions, and by proper gearing is arranged to read
directly in kilowatt-hours.
Watt-hour Meter
Watt-hour Meter
• The watt-hour constant is the registration of one revolution
of the rotating disk element expressed in watt-hours. The
watt-hour constant is also sometimes called the disk
constant. The Kh will usually be found marked on the
meter nameplate or on the rim of the disk.
Var Meters
• Vars (reactive volt-amperes) can be measured on
standard indicating or recording watt-meters, provided the
potentials applied to the instrument coils are shifted 90O
from the position used for measuring watts.
• The 90O phase shift is usually accomplished by connecting
a capacitor-resistor combination in the meter coil potential
circuit.
Var Meters
VA Meter
• meters with certain accuracy limitations are available for
indicating, recording, or registering volt-amperes and volt-
ampere hours.
• As an alternate to metering volt-amperes on a direct
reading instrument, watts and vars may be measured
separately .
VA Meter
• The self-contained volt-ampere meter utilizes a wattmeter
in which the voltage is displaced by an angle
corresponding to the average power factor of the load.
The phase shift in the voltage is ordinarily obtained by the
use of an autotransformer.
• Such a meter will register accurately only when the load
power factor corresponds to the average power factor for
which the meter is designed, but the accuracy will
decrease for power factors on either side of the design
value.
AC Bridges
• Also known as impedance bridges, work the same
manner as the DC bridge , only the balance equation is
with complex quantities, as both magnitude and phase
across the components of the two dividers must be equal
in order for the null detector to indicate “zero.” The null
detector, of course, must be a device capable of detecting
very small AC voltages.
• all four arms are considered as impedance (frequency
dependent components)
• The detector is an ac responding device:
headphone, ac meter
AC Bridges
AC Bridge Equation
Z1 Z 3

Z2 Z4
Example
Solution
Example
• An ac bridge is in balance with the following constants:
arm AB, R = 200 Ω in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC,
R = 300 Ω in series with C = 0.265 μF; arm CD, unknown;
arm DA, = 450 Ω. The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find
the constants of arm CD.
Example
Solution
Comparison Bridge: Capacitance
Comparison Bridge: Inductance
Example
• A comparison bridge is used to measure a capacitive
impedance at a frequency of 2kHz. The bridge constant at
balance are:
C3= 100uF R1 = 10k
R2 = 50k R3 = 100k
Find the equivalent series circuit element of the unknown
impedance.
Ans: Cx = 20uf Rx = 500k
Maxwell Bridge
Example
• A Maxwell bridge is used to measure an inductive
impedance. The bridge constants are balanced at:
C1 = 0.01uF R1 = 470k
R2 = 5.1k R3 = 100k
Find the equivalent series resistance and inductance.
Ans: Rx = 1.09k Lx = 5.1H
Hay Bridge
Hay Bridge
Example
• Find the series equivalent resistance and inductance of
the network that causes a Hay bridge to indicate null with
the following component values:
ω = 3000 rad/sec R2 = 10k R1 = 2k
R3 = 1k C1 = 1uF
Ans: Rx = 4.86k Lx = 270mH

Schering Bridge
Schering Bridge
Example
• Find the equivalent series elements for the unknown
impedance of the Schering bridge network whose
impedance measurements are to be made at null.
R1 = 470k C1 = 0.01uF
R2 = 100k C3 = 0.1 uF
Ans: Rx = 10k Cx = 0.47uF

Wien Bridge
Example
• Find the equivalent parallel resistance and capacitance
that cause a Wein bridge to indicate null with the following
component values:
R1 = 3.1k R2 = 25k
R 4 = 100k C1 = 5.2uF
f = 2.5kHz
Ans: R3 = 12.4k C3 = 20.3pF
Wagner Ground Connection
Digital Instruments
• Digital meters have been developed to
satisfy a need for higher measurement
accuracies and a faster speed of response
to voltage changes than can be achieved
with analogue instruments. They are
technically superior to analogue meters in
almost every respect. However, they have a
greater cost due to the higher manufacturing
costs compared with analogue meters.
Digital Instruments
• The major part of a digital voltmeter is the circuitry that
converts the analogue voltage being measured into a digital
quantity. As the instrument only measures d.c. quantities in
its basic mode, another necessary component within it is
one that performs a.c.- d.c. conversion and thereby gives it
the capacity to measure a.c. signals. After conversion, the
voltage value is displayed by means of indicating tubes or a
set of solid state light-emitting diodes. Four-, five- or even
six-figure output displays are commonly used, and although
the instrument itself may not be inherently more accurate
than some analogue types, this form of display enables
measurements to be recorded with much greater accuracy
than that obtainable by reading an analogue meter scale.
Voltage-to-time conversion digital voltmeter
• When an unknown voltage signal is applied to the input
terminals of the instrument, a negative-slope ramp
waveform is generated internally and compared with the
input signal. When the two are equal, a pulse is generated
that opens a gate, and at a later point in time a second
pulse closes the gate when the negative ramp voltage
reaches zero. The length of time between the gate
opening and closing is monitored by an electronic counter,
which produces a digital display according to the level of
the input voltage signal. Its main drawbacks are non-
linearities in the shape of the ramp waveform used and
lack of noise rejection, and these problems lead to a
typical inaccuracy of 0.05%.
Potentiometric digital voltmeter
• This uses a servo principle, in which the
error between the unknown input voltage
level and a reference voltage is applied to
a servo- driven potentiometer that adjusts
the reference voltage until it balances the
unknown voltage. The output reading is
produced by a mechanical drum-type
digital display driven by the potentiometer.
Dual-slope integration digital voltmeter
• The unknown voltage is applied to an
integrator for a fixed time T1, following
which a reference voltage of opposite
sign is applied to the integrator, which
discharges down to a zero output in an
interval T2 measured by a counter.
Voltage-to-frequency conversion digital voltmeter
• The unknown voltage signal is fed via

a range switch and an amplifier into a
converter circuit whose output is in the
form of a train of voltage pulses at a
frequency proportional to the
magnitude of the input signal. The
main advantage of this type of DVM is
its ability to reject a.c. noise.
Cathode ray oscilloscope
• The analogue oscilloscope is widely used for voltage
measurement, especially as an item of test equipment for
circuit fault-finding, and it is able to measure a very wide
range of both a.c. and d.c. voltage signals. Besides
measuring voltage levels, it can also measure other
quantities such as the frequency and phase of a signal. It
can also indicate the nature and magnitude of noise that
may be corrupting the measurement signal. The more
expensive models can measure signals at frequencies up
to 500MHz and even the cheapest models can measure
signals up to 20 MHz.
• One particularly strong merit of the oscilloscope is its high
input impedance, typically 1M, which means that the
instrument has a negligible loading effect in most
measurement situations. As a test instrument, it is often
required to measure voltages whose frequency and
magnitude are totally unknown. The set of rotary switches
that alter its time base so easily, and the circuitry that
protects it from damage when high voltages are applied to
it on the wrong range, make it ideally suited for such
applications.
•The most important aspects in the specification of an oscilloscope
are its bandwidth, its rise time and its accuracy. The bandwidth is
defined as the range of frequencies over which the oscilloscope
amplifier gain is within 3 dB of its peak value. The -3 dB point is
where the gain is 0.707 times its maximum value.
•In most oscilloscopes, the amplifier is direct coupled, which means
that it amplifies d.c. voltages by the same factor as low-frequency
a.c. ones. For such instruments, the minimum frequency
measurable is zero and the bandwidth can be interpreted as the
maximum frequency where the sensitivity (deflection/volt) is within
3 dB of the peak value. In all measurement situations, the
oscilloscope chosen for use must be such that the maximum
frequency to be measured is well within the bandwidth.
Parts of the cathode ray oscilloscope
• Cathode ray tube
• Channel
• Single-ended input
• Differential input
• Time base circuit (time/div)
• Vertical sensitivity control (volts/div)
• Display position control
Digital storage oscilloscopes
• Digital storage oscilloscopes consist of a
conventional analogue cathode ray
oscilloscope with the added facility that the
measured analogue signal can be converted to
digital format and stored in computer memory
within the instrument. This stored data can then
be reconverted to analogue form at the
frequency necessary to refresh the analogue
display on the screen. This produces a non-
fading display of the signal on the screen.
Digital storage oscilloscopes
• Besides their ability to display the magnitude of voltage
signals and other parameters such as signal phase and
frequency, some digital oscilloscopes can also compute signal
parameters such as peak values, mean values and r.m.s.
values. They are also ideally suited to capturing transient
signals when set to single-sweep mode. This avoids the
problem of the very careful synchronization that is necessary
to capture such signals on an analogue oscilloscope. In
addition, digital oscilloscopes often have facilities to output
analogue signals to devices like chart recorders and output
digital signals in a form that is compatible with standard
interfaces like IEEE488 and RS232. Some now even have
floppy disk drives to extend their storage ability.
Transducers
• a device capable of converting energy
from one form into another.
• Transducers can be found both at the
input as well as at the output stage of
a measuring system.
Types of Transducer
• Input – also known as sensor, it senses the
desired physical quantity and converts it
into another energy form.
• Output – also known as actuator, it
converts the energy into a form to which
another independent system can react,
whether it is a biological system or a
technical system.
Types of energy domains
• Radiant
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electrical
• Magnetic
• Chemical
Modulating Transducer
• a transducer which requires an
auxiliary energy source to convert
energy from one domain into another.
• This type of transducer requires an
electrical energy source to become
operational.
Self-generating transducer
• a transducer which requires no
auxiliary energy source to convert
energy.
Input transducers
• Temperature transducers
Thermocouple
Thermistors
RTD - resistance-thermometer device
Semiconductor junction
IC temperature sensor
Input transducers
• Photometric transducers
Photo-conductive devices
Photo-emissive devices
Photo-diodes
Photo-transistors
Input transducers
• Pressure transducers
 Piezo-electric
 Resistance strain gage
• Displacement transducers
• Accelerometers
• Hall-effect device
Thermocouple
• This device works using the Seebeck-effect –an emf is
produced across the junction of two dissimilar metals in
proportion to temperature. The emf is typically several
tens of microvolts per degree Celsius.
• Thermocouples are capable of making temperature
measurements up to several hundred an in some cases
over a thousand degrees Celsius.
• Thermocouples are used often for high temperature
measurements because they are very reliable and their
calibration depends mostly on established physical
properties of the metals used.
Thermistors
• A thermistor is a special resistor
whose resistance is a strong negative
function of temperature –the
resistance decreases as temperature
increases.
• Thermistors are useful up to around
150 degrees Celsius – some can go
above 200 C.
Resistance-thermometer device(RTD)
• RTDs are special resistors with a positive
temperature coefficient. The coefficient is usually
only a fraction of a percent per degree Celsius.
• RTDs are useful at higher temperatures than
thermistors.
• A widely used RTD is Platinum wire which can be
used at over 1000 degrees Celsius. A standard
RTD is made of Platinum and typically has a
resistance of 100.00 Ohms at 0 degrees Celsius
and the resistance increases by 0.39 Ohms per
degree Celsius.
Semiconductor junction
• When forward biased with a
constant current a semiconductor
junction has a voltage coefficient
in the -1 to -2 millivolts per degree
Celsius from about -40 degrees to
about +200 degrees.
IC temperature sensor
• Although only useful from a little less
than 0 to about 150 degrees Celsius,
there are a number of integrated
circuit sensors that put out a linear
voltage (typically 10 mV/deg. C) or
current as a function of temperature.
Piezo-electric
• This type of device produces a voltage
proportional to applied force. An everyday
example is a crystal microphone which
produces a voltage in proportion to the
expansions and contractions caused by the
force of sound waves.
• A corollary device is the crystal earphone
which expands and contracts in proportion to
applied voltage thus producing acoustical
pressure waves.
Resistance strain gage
• This device is made up of four resistors
connected in a bridge configuration. The
resistors are built so that stretching
changes the effective length, thus changing
the resistance.
• An instrumentation amplifier is connected
across the bridge to detect the extremely
small voltage change due to an applied
force on the strain gage.
Displacement transducers
• These types of transducers are used to measure position
such as shaft angle and linear displacement.
• The most common method is the linear variable
displacement transformer (LVDT). This device consists of
three windings on a movable iron core. The primary
winding is connected to an AC voltage source known as
the excitation. The two secondaries are identical and
connected in series opposing. As the iron core is moved,
the flux coupling from the primary to each of the
secondaries changes –the coupling to one secondary
increases while the coupling to the other decreases. Thus,
the net output voltage and phase is proportional to the
location of the iron core.
Accelerometers
• An accelerometer is typically a piezo-
electric crystal attached to a mass.
The product of mass and acceleration
produces a force on the crystal which
in turn produces a voltage.
• A common application of
accelerometers is measuring vibration
in vibration test systems.
Hall-effect device
• The Hall-effect is the deflection of electrons in
a conductor due to a magnetic field. A voltage
is produced across the lateral dimension of
the conductor in proportion to the strength of
the magnetic field. The voltage is inversely
proportional to the velocity of the electrons in
the conductor. The polarity of the voltage is
related to the magnetic flux direction.
• A differential amplifier is connected across the
conductor to amplify the Hall-effect voltage.
Photo-conductive devices
• These devices have a special resistive
element that is exposed to light through a
window. Light increases the generation of
free electrons in the material thus increasing
the conductivity. These materials are usually
slow to respond to changes in light level,
have hysteresis, and also respond to
temperature.
• There prime application is in light-beam
detection systems.
Photo-emissive devices
• In the photo-multiplier tube (PMT) light (or other
wavelength) photons knock electrons loose from a
metal cathode inside a vacuum tube. Positive anode
voltages accelerate the electrons which then
impinge on the anode knocking even more electrons
loose which are in turn accelerated towards anodes
of even higher voltages. This process continues until
the final anode collects all the electrons. The PMT is
extremely sensitive and can detect the light of a faint
star. The typical output current is from about a
nanoamp to several tens of microamps.
Photo-diodes
• There is an increase flow of majority
carriers through a pn junction due to the
application of light photons. Thus, the
conductance of a photodiode increases
with light. Photo-diodes are usually only
responsive to a narrow band of
wavelengths typically in the infrared
band –around 900 to 1100 nanometers.
Photo-transistors
• These work on the same principle as photo
diodes except that the current is into the base
of a transistor and is amplified by transistor’s
beta. Thus, photo-transistors are about a
factor of one-hundred more responsive than
photo-diodes. The price paid for this is about
a factor of one-hundred lower bandwidth.
• Photo-transistors also only respond to a
narrow band of wavelengths typically in the
infrared band.
Analog to Digital Converter
• Converts an analog voltage level to a digital number
(1’s and 0’s)
Digital Numbers can be effectively handled by
microcontrollers, analog levels cannot
Digital numbers are non-fractional
• The analog input voltage must be within the valid
input range of the A/D for an accurate conversion
• Input range set by reference voltages
Power and Ground
External References
Internal References
Analog to Digital Converter
In this example, an input voltage of 2.343 volts is

converted to 87. The user can use the value 87 as
the representation of the original input voltage. At
this point, the number 87 is only used for
discussion purposes as a typical output.
Sampling
• converts the independent variable
(time in this example) from continuous
to discrete.
Quantization
• Refers to subdividing a space into
small but measurable increments.
• The maximum quantization error is 1/2
the increment size
Quantization
In this example, the step or increment is one-tenth of a volt and the input
voltage is 2.343 volts. The appropriate result would be assigned as a
digital value of 87, because 2.343 volts fits between the quantization
limits of 2.3 volts and 2.4 volts. Any input voltage between the 2.3 and 2.4
volt quantization limits will be assigned a digital value of 87.
Quantization
• The process of quantization has the
potential to introduce an inaccuracy known
as quantization error, which can be viewed
as being similar to a rounding error. In the
above example, the 2.343 volt input is in
effect rounded to the nearest tenth of a
volt. The maximum quantization error in
this case would be five hundredths of a volt
or one-half of the increment size.
Resolution
• Resolution defines the number of possible
output states
2n states
n is the number of bits of the converter
8-bit converter has 28=256 states
10-bit converter has 210=1024 states
12-bit converter has 212 = 4096 states
• Higher resolution = less quantization error
Simplified A/D Module
Diagram
Simplified A/D Module
Diagram
• This is a simplified diagram of the analog-to-digital converter
module. The analog input pins are connected to the inputs of
an analog multiplexer which connects the selected channel to
the holding capacitor. The analog multiplexer allows multiple
inputs to be available for conversion. It is important to note
however, that there is only one analog-to-digital converter on
the microcontroller, and only one channel can be selected, and
therefore converted at a time.
• Normally the holding capacitor is connected to the output of
the analog multiplexer. When a conversion is initiated, the
analog multiplexer disconnects all inputs from the holding
capacitor, and the successive approximation converter
performs the conversion on the voltage stored on the holding
capacitor.
Acquisition Time
• Acquisition time is the time required to charge and
discharge the holding capacitor on the front end of an
ADC
• If sufficient time is not allowed for acquisition the
conversion result will be inaccurate
• Required acquisition time affected by:
 Internal Analog Multiplexer Impedance
 Source Impedance
Types of ADC
• Successive approximations
• Flash
• Pipelined
• Sigma-delta (ΣΔ)
Comparison of ADC
Successive Approximations
• The successive-approximations architecture can be
thought of as being orthogonal to the flash architecture.
While a flash converter uses many comparators to
convert in a single cycle; a SAR converter conceptually
uses a single comparator over many cycles to make its
conversion. The SAR converter works like an old-
fashioned balance scale. On one side of the scale, we
place the sampled unknown quantity. On the other side,
we place a weight.
• A SAR converter can use a single comparator to realize a
high resolution ADC. But it requires n comparison cycles
to achieve n-bit resolution, compared to p cycles for a
pipelined converter and 1 cycle for a flash converter.
Since a successive-approximations converter uses a fairly
simple architecture employing a single SAR, comparator,
and DAC, and the conversion is not complete until all
weights have been tested, only one conversion is
processed during n comparison cycles. For this reason,
SAR converters are more often used at lower speeds in
higher-resolution applications.
Flash Converters
• Conceptually, the flash architecture is quite
straightforward: a set of 2n–1 comparators is used to directly
measure an analog signal to a resolution of n bits. For a 4-
bit flash ADC, the analog input is fed into 15 comparators ,
each of which is biased to compare the input to a discrete
transition value. These values are spaced one least-
significant bit (LSB = FS/2n) apart. The comparator outputs
simultaneously present 2n–1 discrete digital output states. If
for example the input is just above 1/4 of full scale, all
comparators biased to less than 1/4 full scale will output a
digital “1,” and the others will output a digital “0.” Together,
these outputs can be read much like a liquid thermometer.
The final step is to level-decode the result into binary form.
Flash Converters
Flash Converters
• The flash architecture has the advantage of being
very fast, because the conversion occurs in a
single ADC cycle. The disadvantage of this
approach is that it requires a large number of
comparators that are carefully matched and
properly biased to ensure that the results are
linear. Since the number of comparators needed
for an n-bit resolution ADC is equal to 2 n–1, limits
of physical integration and input loading keep the
maximum resolution fairly low.
Pipelined Architecture
• The pipelined (or pipelined-flash) architecture effectively overcomes
the limitations of the flash architecture. A pipelined converter divides
the conversion task into several consecutive stages. Each of these
stages consists of a sample-and hold circuit, an m-bit ADC (e.g., a
flash converter), and an m-bit D/A converter (DAC).
• First the sample and hold circuit of the first stage acquires the signal.
The m-bit flash converter then converts the sampled signal to digital
data. The conversion result forms the most significant bits of the
digital output. This same digital output is fed into an m-bit digital-to-
analog converter, and its output is subtracted from the original
sampled signal.
• The residual analog signal is then amplified and sent on to the next
stage in the pipeline to be sampled and converted as it was in the
first stage. This process is repeated through as many stages as are
necessary to achieve the desired resolution.
• Pipelined converters achieve higher resolutions than flash
converters containing a similar number of comparators. This
comes at the price of increasing the total conversion time from
one cycle to p cycles. But since each stage samples and holds
its input, p conversions can be underway simultaneously. The
total throughput can therefore be equal to the throughput of a
flash converter, i.e., one conversion per cycle. The difference is
that for the pipelined converter, we have now introduced
latency equal to p cycles.
• Another limitation of the pipelined architecture is that the
conversion process generally requires a clock with a fixed
period. Converting rapidly varying non-periodic signals on a
traditional pipelined converter can be difficult because the
pipeline typically runs at a periodic rate.
Sigma-Delta
• The sigma-delta architecture takes a fundamentally different
approach than those outlined above. In its most basic form, a
sigma-delta converter consists of an integrator, a comparator, and a
single bit DAC. The output of the DAC is subtracted from the input
signal. The resulting signal is then integrated, and the integrator
output voltage is converted to a single-bit digital output (1 or 0) by
the comparator. The resulting bit becomes the input to the DAC,
and the DAC’s output is subtracted from the ADC input signal, etc.
• This closed-loop process is carried out at a very high
“oversampled” rate. The digital data coming from the ADC is a
stream of “ones” and “zeros,” and the value of the signal is
proportional to the density of digital “ones” coming from the
comparator. This bit stream data is then digitally filtered and
decimated to result in a binary-format output.
Sigma-Delta
Sigma-Delta
• One of the most advantageous features of the sigma-delta
architecture is the capability of noise shaping, a phenomenon by
which much of the low-frequency noise is effectively pushed up to
higher frequencies and out of the band of interest. As a result, the
sigma-delta architecture has been very popular for designing low-
bandwidth high-resolution ADCs for precision measurement.
• Since the input is sampled at a high “oversampled” rate, unlike the
other architectures described, the requirement for external anti-alias
filtering is greatly relaxed. A limitation of this architecture is its
latency, which is substantially greater than that of the other types.
Because of oversampling and latency, sigma-delta converters are
not often used in multiplexed signal applications.
• To avoid interference between multiplexed signals, a delay at least
equal to the decimator’s total delay must occur between
conversions.
Signal Conditioning
• Manipulating an analogue signal in
such a way that it meets the
requirements of the next stage for
further processing.
• The process of converting or
translating a signal into a form that is
accepted by a device.
Types of Signal Conditioning
• Filtering- removing of a certain band of
frequencies within it. The band of
frequencies removed can be either at the
low-frequency end of the frequency
spectrum, at the high-frequency end, at both
ends, or in the middle of the spectrum.
 low-pass filters
 high-pass filters
 band-pass filters
 band-stop filters
Passive Filters (RLC)

Active Filters (OP-Amp)

• Amplification - carried out when the typical
signal output level of a measurement
transducer is considered to be too low.
 Instrumentation amplifier
• Attenuation – reduction of the amplitude or
power of a signal without appreciably
distorting its waveform.
• Differential amplification – used to remove
common mode noise voltages.
• Signal linearization – conversion of a non-
linear signal to linear one.
• Bias (zero drift) removal
• Signal integration
• Voltage follower (pre-amplifier)
• Voltage comparator
• Phase-sensitive detector - measure the
phase difference between two signals that
have the same frequency.
• Lock-in amplifier - used to demodulate
small signals and extract them from noise
when they are transmitted on an A.C.
carrier.
• Signal addition – used to sum up two or
more signal.
• Signal multiplication – multiplies two or
more signals
 Two quadrant – single polarity
 Four quadrant – both positive and
negative
Digital Signal Processing
• Sampling - The process of analogue-to-digital
conversion consists of sampling the analogue
signal at regular intervals of time. Each
sample of the analogue voltage is then
converted into an equivalent digital value. This
conversion takes a certain finite time, during
which the analogue signal can be changing in
value. The next sample of the analogue signal
cannot be taken until the conversion of the
last sample to digital form is completed.
• Sample and hold circuit
 A sample and hold circuit is normally an
essential element at the interface between an
analogue sensor or transducer and an analogue-
to-digital converter. It holds the input signal at a
constant level while the analogue-to-digital
conversion process is taking place. This
prevents the conversion errors that would
probably result if variations in the measured
signal were allowed to pass through to the
converter.
• Analogue-to-digital(A/D) converters
 The simplest type of analogue-to-digital
converter is the counter analogue-to
digital converter.
• Digital-to-analogue (D/A) converters
 It is required wherever a digitally
processed signal has to be presented to
an analogue control actuator or an
analogue signal display device.
• Digital filtering
 Digital signal processing can perform all of the filtering
functions of analogue filters, i.e. low pass, high pass,
band pass and band stop.
• Autocorrelation
 A special digital signal processing technique that has
the ability to extract a measurement signal when it is
completely swamped by noise, i.e. when the noise
amplitude is larger than the signal amplitude.
Unfortunately, phase information in the measurement
signal is lost during the autocorrelation process, but the
amplitude and frequency can be extracted accurately.
Recording Instruments
• Why do we need to record data?
a. analysis of historical behavior of
measured parameters
b. fault analysis
c. for storage
Mechanical chart recorders
• Mechanical chart recorders are a long-established means
of making permanent records of electrical signals in a
simple, cheap and reliable way, even though they have
poor dynamic characteristics which means that they are
unable to record signals at frequencies greater than about
30 Hz.
• They have particular advantages in providing a non-
corruptible record that has the merit of instant ‘viewability’,
thereby satisfying regulations in many industries that
require variables to be monitored and recorded
continuously with hard-copy output.
Types of Mechanical Chart Recorders
• Galvanometric recorders
• These work on the same principle as a moving-
coil meter except that the pointer draws an ink
trace on paper instead of merely moving
against a scale. The measured signal is applied
to the coil, and the angular deflection of this and
its attached pointer is proportional to the
magnitude of the signal applied.
• Potentiometric recorders
• Potentiometric recorders have much better
specifications than galvanometric recorders, with a
typical inaccuracy of 0.1% of full scale and
measurement resolution of 0.2% full scale being
achievable. Such instruments employ a servo system
in which the pen is driven by a servomotor, and a
potentiometer on the pen feeds back a signal
proportional to pen position. This position signal is
compared with the measured signal, and the
difference is applied as an error signal that drives the
motor.
• Circular chart recorders
• These consist of a rotating circular paper
chart which typically turns through one full
revolution in 24 hours, allowing charts to be
removed once per day and stored. The pen
in such instruments is often driven
pneumatically to record 200–1000 mbar (3–
15 psi) pneumatic process signals, although
versions with electrically driven pens also
exist.
Ultra-violet recorders
• Ultra-violet recorders work on very similar
principles to standard galvanometric chart
recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction
in system inertia and spring constants by
mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen
system on the moving coil. This mirror reflects a
beam of ultra-violet light onto ultra-violet sensitive
paper. It is usual to find several of these mirror-
galvanometer systems mounted in parallel within
one instrument to provide a multi-channel
recording capability.
Fibre-optic recorders
• The fibre optic recorder uses a fibre-optic system to direct light onto
light-sensitive paper. Fibre-optic recorders are similar to oscilloscopes in
construction, insofar as they have an electron gun and focusing system
that directs a stream of electrons onto one point on a fluorescent
screen, and for this reason they are alternatively known as recording
oscilloscopes. The screen is usually a long thin one instead of the
square type found in an oscilloscope and only one set of deflection
plates is provided. The signal to be recorded is applied to the deflection
plates and the movement of the focused spot of electrons on the screen
is proportional to the signal amplitude. A narrow strip of fibre optics in
contact with the fluorescent screen transmits the motion of the spot to
photosensitive paper held in close proximity to the other end of the fibre-
optic strip. By driving the photosensitive paper at a constant speed past
the fibre-optic strip, a time history of the measured signal is obtained.
Such recorders are much more expensive than ultra-violet recorders but
have an even higher bandwidth up to 1MHz.
Hybrid chart recorders
• Hybrid chart recorders represent the latest
generation of chart recorder and basically consist
of a potentiometric chart recorder with an added
microprocessor. The microprocessor provides for
selection of range and chart speed, and also
allows specification of alarm modes and levels to
detect when measured variables go outside
acceptable limits. Additional information can also
be printed on charts, such as names, times and
dates of variables recorded.
Magnetic tape recorders
• Magnetic tape recorders can record analogue
signals up to 80 kHz in frequency. As the speed
of the tape transport can be switched between
several values, signals can be recorded at high
speed and replayed at a lower speed. Such time
scaling of the recorded information allows a
hard copy of the signal behavior to be obtained
from instruments such as ultra-violet and
galvanometric recorders whose bandwidth is
insufficient to allow direct signal recording.
Digital recorders
• For some time, the only technique available for recording
signals at frequencies higher than 80 kHz has been to use
a digital processor. As the signals to be recorded are
usually in analogue form, a prerequisite for this is an
analogue-to-digital (A–D) converter board to sample the
analogue signals and convert them to digital form.
• As an alternative to chart recorders when hard-copy
records are required, numerical data can be readily output
from digital recorders onto alphanumeric digital printers in
the form of dot-matrix, inkjet or laser printing devices.
However, when there are trends in data, the graphical
display of the time history of a variable provided by a chart
recorder shows up the trends much more readily.
Storage oscilloscopes
• Storage oscilloscopes exist in both analogue and digital
forms, although the latter is now much more common. An
analogue storage oscilloscope is a conventional
oscilloscope that has a special phosphorescent coating on
its screen that allows it to ‘hold’ a trace for up to one hour.
This can be photographed if a permanent record of the
measured signal is required. The digital storage
oscilloscope, commonly referred to simply as a digital
oscilloscope, is merely a conventional analogue
oscilloscope that has digital storage capabilities.
Measurement of Non-Electrical Parameters
• Sensors – also known as transducers
converts the non-electrical parameter
to electrical value such as
capacitance, inductance, or resistance
for passive devices and voltage and
current for active devices.
Types of Sensors
• Capacitive and resistive sensors
• Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal
plates in which the dielectric between the plates
is either air or some other medium.
o Moisture content, humidity, level
• Resistive sensors rely on the variation of the
resistance of a material when the measured
variable is applied to it.
o Displacement, temperature
Types of Sensors
• Magnetic sensors
• Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance,
reluctance and eddy currents to indicate the value of the measured
quantity, which is usually some form of displacement.
• Inductive sensors translate movement into a change in the mutual
inductance between magnetically coupled parts.
o Translational and rotational displacement
• Variable reluctance sensors, a coil is wound on a permanent
magnet rather than on an iron core as in variable inductance
sensors.
o Rotational velocities
• Eddy current sensors consist of a probe containing a coil that is
excited at a high frequency, which is typically 1MHz.
o Displacement relative to moving object
Types of Sensors
• Hall-effect sensors
• A Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the
magnitude of a magnetic field. It consists of a conductor carrying a
current that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic field.
o Proximity sensing
• Piezoelectric transducers
• Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force
is applied to them.
o Ultrasonic detection, displacement
Types of Sensors
• Strain gauges
• Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance
when they are stretched or strained.
o displacement
• Piezoresistive sensors
• A piezoresistive sensor is made from semiconductor material in
which a p-type region has been diffused into an n-type base. The
resistance of this varies greatly when the sensor is compressed or
stretched.
o displacement
Types of Sensors
• Optical sensors (air path)
• Optical sensors are based on the modulation of light travelling
between a light source and a light detector.
o Translational motion, proximity, rotational motion, gas concentration
• Optical sensors (fibre-optic)

• As an alternative to using air as the transmission medium, optical
sensors can use fibre optic cable instead to transmit light between
a source and a detector.
o Proximity, displacement, light intensity, temperature
Types of Sensors
• Ultrasonic transducers
• Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz,
that is, above the sonic range that humans can usually hear.
Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one device
that transmits an ultrasound wave and another device that receives
the wave. Changes in the measured variable are determined either
by measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to
travel between the transmitter and receiver, or, alternatively, by
measuring the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted
wave.
o Flow rates, translational displacement, liquid level.
Types of Sensors
• Nuclear sensors
• The principle of operation of nuclear sensors is very similar to
optical sensors in that radiation is transmitted between a source
and a detector through some medium in which the magnitude of
transmission is attenuated according to the value of the measured
variable.
o Mass flow rate
Types of Sensors
• Micro-sensors
• Micro-sensors are millimetre-sized two- and three-dimensional
micro-machined structures that have smaller size, improved
performance, better reliability and lower production costs than
many alternative forms of sensor.
Telemetering
• Transmitting the readings of instruments to a remote
location by means of wires, radio waves, or other means.
Also known as remote metering or telemetry.
• The branch of engineering, also called telemetry, which is
concerned with collection of measurement data at a
distant or inconvenient location, and display of the data at
a convenient location.
Telemetering
• Telemetering involves a number of separate functions:
(1) generating an electrical variable which is proportional to each of
several physical measurements
(2) converting each electrical variable to a proportional voltage in a
common range
(3) combining all measurements into a common stream
(4) moving the combined measurements to the desired receiving
location, as by radio link
(5) separating the measurements and identifying each one
(6) processing selected measurements to aid in mission analysis
(7) displaying selected measurements in a useful form for analysis
(8) storing all measurements for future analysis.
Components of a telemetering system
• supervisory control of remote stations
• data acquisition on remote stations
• communications link
Applications
• electrical power generation and distribution
• water distribution
• other wide-area industrial applications
SCADA
• SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition. As the name indicates, it is not a full control
system, but rather focuses on the supervisory level. As
such, it is a purely software package that is positioned on
top of hardware to which it is interfaced, in general via
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), or other
commercial hardware modules.
SCADA
• SCADA systems are used not only in most industrial
processes: e.g. steel making, power generation
(conventional and nuclear) and distribution, chemistry, but
also in some experimental facilities such as nuclear
fusion. The size of such plants range from a few 1000 to
several 10 thousands input/output (I/O) channels.
SCADA
• SCADA systems used to run on DOS, VMS and UNIX; in
recent years all SCADA vendors have moved to NT. One
product was found that also runs under Linux.
SCADA Components
• A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which
presents process data to a human operator, and through this,
the human operator monitors and controls the process.
• A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on
the process and sending commands (control) to the process.
• Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the
process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending
digital data to the supervisory system.
• Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices
because they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and
configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
• Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory
system to the Remote Terminal Units
SCADA Hardware Architecture
• One distinguishes two basic layers in a SCADA system:
the "client layer" which caters for the man machine
interaction and the "data server layer" which handles most
of the process data control activities. The data servers
communicate with devices in the field through process
controllers. Process controllers, e.g. PLCs, are connected
to the data servers either directly or via networks or field
buses that are proprietary (e.g. Siemens H1), or non-
proprietary (e.g. Profibus). Data servers are connected to
each other and to client stations via an Ethernet LAN. The
data servers and client stations are NT platforms but for
many products the client stations may also be W95
machines.
Hardware Architecture
SCADA Software Architecture
• The products are multi-tasking and are based upon a real-
time database (RTDB) located in one or more servers.
Servers are responsible for data acquisition and handling
(e.g. polling controllers, alarm checking, calculations,
logging and archiving) on a set of parameters, typically
those they are connected to.
Software Architecture
SCADA Communications
• Internal Communication
Server-client and server-server communication is in
general on a publish-subscribe and event-driven basis
and uses a TCP/IP protocol, i.e., a client application
subscribes to a parameter which is ‘owned’ by a particular
server application and only changes to that parameter are
then communicated to the client application.
SCADA Communications
• Access to Devices
The data servers poll the controllers at a user defined
polling rate. The polling rate may be different for different
parameters. The controllers pass the requested
parameters to the data servers. Time stamping of the
process parameters is typically performed in the
controllers and this time-stamp is taken over by the data
server. The products provide communication drivers for
most of the common PLCs and widely used field-buses.
User Interface (HMI)
• A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called
Human Machine Interface (HMI). The HMI of a SCADA
system is where data is processed and presented to be
viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface
usually includes controls where the individual can
interface with the SCADA system.
Supervision vs. control
• There is, in several industries, considerable confusion
over the differences between SCADA systems and
Distributed control systems (DCS). Generally speaking, a
SCADA system usually refers to a system that
coordinates, but does not control processes in real time.
The discussion on real-time control is muddied somewhat
by newer telecommunications technology, enabling
reliable, low latency, high speed communications over
wide areas.
SCADA
• SCADA systems typically implement a distributed
database, commonly referred to as a tag database, which
contains data elements called tags or points. A point
represents a single input or output value monitored or
controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or
"soft". A hard point represents an actual input or output
within the system, while a soft point results from logic and
math operations applied to other points.
SCADA Architectures
• First Generation: "Monolithic"
In the first generation computing was done by Mainframe
systems. Networks didn’t exist at the time SCADA was
developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent
systems with no connectivity to other systems. Wide Area
Networks were later designed by RTU vendors to
communicate with the RTU. The communication protocols
used were often proprietary at that time. The first
generation SCADA System was redundant since a back-
up mainframe system was connected at the bus level and
was used in the event of failure of the main mainframe
system.
SCADA Architectures
• Second Generation: "Distributed"
The processing was distributed across multiple stations which

were connected through LAN and they shared information in
real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task
thus making the size and cost of each station less than the
one used in First Generation. The network protocols used
were still mostly proprietary, which led to significant security
problems for any SCADA system that received attention from
a hacker. Since the protocols were proprietary, very few
people beyond the developers and hackers knew enough to
determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Since both
parties had vested interests in keeping security issues quiet,
the security of a SCADA installation was often badly
overestimated, if it was considered at all.
SCADA Architectures
• Third Generation: "Networked"
These are the current generation SCADA systems which
use open system architecture rather than a vendor
controlled proprietary environment. The SCADA system
utilizes open standard and protocols thus distributing
functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is easier
to connect third party peripheral devices like printers, disk
drives, tape drives due to the use of open architecture.
WAN protocols such as Internet Protocol (IP) are used for
communication between the master station and
communications equipment.
Typical SCADA Display
SCADA Master Console
PLC Basics
• Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to
as programmable controllers, are in the computer family.
They are used in commercial and industrial applications.
PLC Basics
Basic PLC Operation
• PLCs consist of input modules or points, a Central
Processing Unit (CPU), and output modules or points.
Basic PLC Operation
• Pushbuttons (sensors), in this simple example, connected
to PLC inputs, can be used to start and stop a motor
connected to a PLC through a motor starter (actuator).
Basic PLC Operation
Hard-Wired Control
• Prior to PLCs, many of these control tasks were solved
with contactor or relay controls. This is often referred to as
hard-wired control.
Hard-Wired Control
PLCs Versus Other Types of Controls
• A PLC is not the only choice for controlling a process.
Sticking with only basic relays may be of a benefit
depending upon your application. Yet, on the other hand,
a computer might be the way to go. The PLC vs. PC
debate has been going on for a long time. More often
though it doesn't come down to an "either or" situation but
involves a mix of technologies.
PLC vs. Relay
• In the early times of programming PLCs it was still
questionable if a PLC was necessary over just relay
control. With PLC prices going down, size shrinking, and
performance of PLCs improving over the years this has
become less of a battle. Yet the designer has to ask
themselves if a PLC is really overkill for their application.
PLC vs. Dedicated Controller
• A dedicated controller is a single instrument that is
dedicated to controlling one parameter such as a PID
controller measuring a temperature for heating control.
They have the advantages of an all in one package,
typically with display and buttons. This can be a very good
thing to use in simple applications. A PLC these days can
compete price wise and functionally with these controllers
especially if you more then one controller is needed. PLCs
offer a greater degree of flexibility too because the can be
programmed to handle all sorts of different scenarios.
Advantages
• Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions
• Easier and faster to make changes
• PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions
• Diagnostics are centrally available
• Applications can be immediately documented
• Applications can be duplicated faster and less
expensively
Basic Terminology
• The language of PLCs consists of a commonly used set of
terms; many of which are unique to PLCs. In order to
understand the ideas and concepts of PLCs, an
understanding of these terms is necessary.
Sensor
• A sensor is a device that converts a physical condition into
an electrical signal for use by the PLC. Sensors are
connected to the input of a PLC. A pushbutton is one
example of a sensor that is connected to the PLC input.
An electrical signal is sent from the pushbutton to the PLC
indicating the condition (open/ closed) of the pushbutton
contacts.
Sensor
Actuators
• Actuators convert an electrical signal from the PLC into a
physical condition. Actuators are connected to the PLC
output. A motor starter is one example of an actuator that
is connected to the PLC output. Depending on the output
PLC signal the motor starter will either start or stop the
motor.
Actuators
Discrete Input
• A discrete input, also referred to as a digital input, is an
input that is either in an ON or OFF condition.
Discrete Input
Analog Input
• An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous
signal. Typical analog inputs may vary from 0 to 20
milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts. In the
following example, a level transmitter monitors the level of
liquid in a tank. Depending on the level transmitter, the
signal to the PLC can either increase or decrease as the
level increases or decreases.
Analog Input
Discrete Outputs
• A discrete output is an output that is either in an ON or
OFF condition. Solenoids, contactor coils, and lamps are
examples of actuator devices connected to discrete
outputs. Discrete outputs may also be referred to as
digital outputs. In the following example, a lamp can be
turned on or off by the PLC output it is connected to.
Discrete Outputs
Analog Outputs
• An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous
signal. The output may be as simple as a 0-10 VDC level
that drives an analog meter. Examples of analog meter
outputs are speed, weight, and temperature. The output
signal may also be used on more complex applications
such as a current-topneumatic transducer that controls an
air-operated flow-control valve.
Analog Outputs
CPU
• The central processor unit (CPU) is a microprocessor
system that contains the system memory and is the PLC
decision making unit. The CPU monitors the inputs and
makes decisions based on instructions held in the
program memory. The CPU performs relay, counting,
timing, data comparison, and sequential operations.
CPU
Programming
• Ladder logic (LAD) is one programming language used
with PLCs. Ladder logic incorporates programming
functions that are graphically displayed to resemble
symbols used in hard-wired control diagrams.
• The left vertical line of a ladder logic diagram represents
the power or energized conductor. The output coil
instruction represents the neutral or return path of the
circuit. The right vertical line, which represents the return
path on a hard-wired control line diagram, is omitted.
Ladder logic diagrams are read from left-to-right and top-
to-bottom. Rungs are sometimes referred to as networks.
A network may have several control elements, but only
one output coil.
Programming
Statement List
• A statement list (STL) provides another view of a set of
instructions.
Statement List
Function Block Diagrams
• Function Block Diagrams (FBD) provide another view of a
set of instructions.
Function Block Diagrams
PLC Scan
• The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive
process referred to as a scan. A PLC scan starts with the
CPU reading the status of inputs. Next, the application
program is executed. Then, the CPU performs internal
diagnostics and communication tasks. Finally, the CPU
updates the status of outputs. This process repeats as
long as the CPU in the run mode. The time required to
complete a scan depends on the size of the program, the
number of I/Os, and the amount of communication
required.
PLC Scan
Process Controls
• A control system is a system of integrated elements
whose function is to maintain a process variable at a
desired value or within a desired range of values. The
control system monitors a process variable or variables,
then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired
system parameter.
• Control system input is the stimulus applied to a control
system from an external source to produce a specified
response from the control system.
• Control system output is the actual response obtained
from a control system.
Types of Control Systems
• An open-loop control system is one in which the control
action is independent of the output.
• A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is
dependent on the output.
• Feedback is information in a closed-loop control system
about the condition of a process variable. This variable is
compared with a desired condition to produce the proper
control action on the process. Information is continually "fed
back" to the control circuit in response to control action.
• An automatic control system is a preset closed-loop control
system that requires no operator action. This assumes the
process remains in the normal range for the control system.
Four basic functions of automatic control system
• Measurement
• Comparison
• Computation
• Correction
Elements of automatic control systems
• A measurement element
• An error detection element
• A final control element
Function elements of automatic control systems
Feedback control system block diagram
Terminologies
• The plant is the system or process through which a particular
quantity or condition is controlled. This is also called the
controlled system.
• The control elements are components needed to generate
the appropriate control signal applied to the plant. These
elements are also called the "controller."
• The feedback elements are components needed to identify
the functional relationship between the feedback signal and
the controlled output.
• The reference point is an external signal applied to the
summing point of the control system to cause the plant to
produce a specified action. This signal represents the desired
value of a controlled variable and is also called the "setpoint."
Terminologies
• The controlled output is the quantity or condition of the plant
which is controlled. This signal represents the controlled variable.
• The feedback signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to
the summing point and algebraically added to the reference input
signal to obtain the actuating signal.
• The actuating signal represents the control action of the control
loop and is equal to the algebraic sum of the reference input
signal and feedback signal. This is also called the "error signal."
• The manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted
upon to maintain the plant output (controlled variable) at the
desired value.
• The disturbance is an undesirable input signal that upsets the
value of the controlled output of the plant.
Two position control systems
• It is a device that has two operating conditions: completely
on or completely off.
• This device provides an output determined by whether the
error signal is above or below the setpoint.
• Deviation is the difference between the setpoint of a
process variable and its actual value.
• In the proportional (throttling) mode, the amount of valve
movement is proportional to the amount of deviation. Gain
compares the ratio of amount of change in the final
control element to change in the controlled variable, and
offset is the deviation that remains after a process has
been stabilized.
Two position Control Systems
Proportional Control Systems
• In the proportional control mode, the final control element
is throttled to various positions that are dependent on the
process system conditions.
• With proportional control, the output has a linear
relationship with the input.
• The proportional band is the change in input required to
produce a full range of change in the output due to the
proportional control action.
• The controlled variable is maintained within a specified
band of control points around a setpoint.
Proportional Control Systems
Reset Integral Control System
• An integral controller provides an output rate of change
that is determined by the magnitude of the error and the
integral constant.
• The controller has the unique ability to return the process
back to the exact setpoint.
• The integral control mode is not normally used by itself
because of its slow response to an error signal.
Reset Integral Control System
Proportional Plus Reset Control System
• Proportional plus reset control eliminates any offset error
that would occur with proportional control only.
• Reset windup is an inherent disadvantage of proportional
plus reset controllers that are subject to large error
signals.
Proportional Plus Reset Control System
Proportional Plus Rate Control System
• Derivative action is added to a controller to make it
respond to the rate of change of the error signal.
• Derivative action cannot be used as a control mode alone.
• Proportional plus rate control does not eliminate offset
error.
• Proportional plus rate control increases system stability.
Proportional Plus Rate Control System
Proportional Plus Reset Plus Rate
Control System
• The PID controller combines the three individual modes to
achieve the advantages of each.
• The proportional action responds to the error amplitude.
• The integral action eliminates the offset error.
• The derivative action provides additional stability to the
process.
• PID controllers can be used to control most processes,
even those that are difficult to control.
Effects of P,I, and D in a Controller
SETTLING
CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT S-S ERROR
TIME
Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease No Change
Proportional Control
• The closed-loop transfer function of the above system
with a proportional controller is:
Proportional-Derivative Control
• The closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a PD
controller is:
Proportional-Integral Control
• The closed-loop transfer function with a PI control is:
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control
• The closed-loop transfer function of the given system with a

PID controller is:

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INSTRUMENTATION

• Many different situations may present themselves

• accessible real parameters: these include the

 direct methods of measurement: with

• the principle of direct measurement: here, the

Types of Instrument Signals

• sensors associated with electronic conditioning. Groups of these make

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• Traceability - the property of a

The common process variables are:

• The common types of instruments in piping

The letters are FE and the numbers are

xi being the result of the ith

the following values for 2 548

the resonant frequency 3 543

COMPASS AND CONDUCTING

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Im( Rsh  Rm)

Im( Rsh  Rm)

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Passive Filters (RLC)

Active Filters (OP-Amp)

• Optical sensors (fibre-optic)

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