Cognitive Orientation and

Management:
Predicting and Changing
Behavior in Management
Shulamith Kreitler, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Tel-Aviv University
Tel-Aviv, Israel
Tel: +972-3-5227185 Fax: +972-3-5225371 E-mail: Krit@netvision.net.il
 What is Cognitive
Orientation and what it can
do for management?
 Reasons for the complexity of
management behavior:
1. Multiplicity of goals, contexts, teams interacting,
combining, replacing each other at unpredictable rates.
2. Constant dependence on and need to respond adequately
to external circumstances over which one has little or no
control.
3. Constant evaluation by external standards that could lead
to lowered status up to the point of being fired.
4. Requirement for creativity coupled with the need to
conform to reality-conditioned circumstances
5. Absence of any specific behavior which could be
identified as demonstrating good management.
Three approaches to overcoming the
difficulties of management:

 Shaping external reality (markets, consumers,

other businesses)
 Shaping internal reality (within the business
itself, employees, atmosphere)
 Shaping management:
Selecting and Training individuals with the
adequate potential
 Three common, possible approaches to
overcoming the difficulties of management:
 Shaping external reality (markets, consumers, other
businesses)
 Shaping internal reality (within the business itself,
employees, atmosphere)
 Shaping management:
Selecting and Training individuals with the
adequate potential

We are going to focus on shaping management. There have

been many theoretical and applied approaches to selecting
managers.
 Common approaches to selecting
managers:
1. Focusing on characteristics considered to be
relevant for the position, e.g.,
 Considering the job requirements (stimulus
properties), e.g., elegance, expertise, verbal ability
 Considering the personality (response properties),
e.g., self-esteem, flexibility, locus of control
 Common approaches to selecting
managers:

2. Level of characteristics
 General: e.g., Adaptors versus Innovators (Kirton),
Leadership, Emotional intelligence
 Specific: e.g., Ability to concentrate under noise
conditions Readiness to get specific instructions
for performance
 Common approaches to selecting
managers:
3. Means of assessment
 Self-report
 Peers evaluation
 Supervisors’ evaluation

 Verbal
 Behavioral

 General items
 Situational items
 Major shortcomings of the common
selection procedures
1. Too specific
Limited to particular context
job
behavior
needs

2. OR
 Major shortcomings of the common
selection procedures
2. Too general
Do not relate to any particular context
job
behavior
needs
Major shortcomings of the common
selection procedures

3. Selection not coordinated with training

 Principles of selection on the basis of
cognitive orientation
1. Selecting on the basis of a set of characteristics
2. Selecting in view of multiple needs
3. Selecting on the basis of motivational tendencies (and
not traits)
4. Selecting on the basis of tendencies related directly to
behavior
5. Selecting on the basis of tendencies related to a broad
spectrum of behaviors in a given domain
6. Selecting on the basis of motivational tendencies that
allow for change and training
7. Selection and training open to extension to any preferred
type of manager
 Cognitive Orientation Theory
Developed in 1962
Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler

 A theory for
 understanding
 predicting behavior
 changing
 Cognitive Orientation Theory
Developed in 1962
Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler

 A body of data – in regard to

 predicting behavior
 changing behavior

 conceptual and empirical tools generated by the

theory
Cognitive Orientation Theory
Developed in 1962
Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler

 A methodology – for
 predicting behavior
 changing behavior in desired direction
Cognitive Orientation Theory
Developed in 1962
Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler

 Major domain of application -

 Molar behaviors
 Cognitive behaviors

 Health behaviors

 Medical disorders

 Psychopathological disorders

 Emotional behaviors
 Basic Assumption of the
Cognitive Orientation Theory :

Cognition plays an active-dynamic

role in regard to behavior
 Cognitive Orientation Theory
(Kreitler & Kreitler)
Major Theses :
 Behavior is a function of a motivational
disposition (=directionality of behavior) and
performance

Behavior
 Cognition affects behavior by contributing
differentially to motivation and performance
 The cognitive impact is neither conscious nor
voluntary
The rationale for the
impact of cognitions
on behavior is their
meaning-based
relation to behavior
 Cognitive Orientation Theory
Major Stages
“Question” Process “Answer”
INPUT
1. What is it? Meaning Action Unconditioned
or conditioned
response
2. What does it Meaning Generation Action required
mean in general
and to me?
3. What action? 4 types of beliefs; Behavioral
Intent CO Cluster
4. How to perform Program Retrieval; Behavioral Program
action? Planning OUTPUT
 Input Input dealt
Input Meaning identified Reflex, CR, with
What is the Exit
input? action etc.
Input identified
Input not for molar action Input not
identified dealt with
What does it
Exit
mean for Action not required
me?
Action
required
What
action?

Behavioral
4 types of beliefs:Intent How to
Behavioral
Cog. Orientation perform Program
Cluster action?

Behavior
 Four Types of Behavioral Programs
1) Innately determined programs
e.g., reflexes
2) Programs determined partly innately and partly
by learning
1) e.g., instincts, language
3) Programs acquired through learning
1) e.g., culturally shaped behaviors (running elections, etc.) or
personal habits (making friends, relaxing, etc.)
4) Programs constructed by the individual ad hoc
 Structure of Beliefs
BELIEF SUBJECT RELATION
Self I Factual
Norms non-I Desirable
Goals I Desired
General non-I Factual
Examples of the Four Types of Beliefs
Beliefs about self:
“I am an easy-going person”
“I often lie”
“I hate disorder”
Beliefs about goals:
“I wish to be a tough person”
“I would like to be free of any obligations”
“I want to be loved by everybody”
Examples of the Four Types of Beliefs
Beliefs about rules and norms:
“One should never lie”
“People ought to consider first of all their own
interests”
“Don’t ever expect to be loved by everybody”
General beliefs:
“It is impossible to do everything to perfection”
“Obligations weigh heavily on most people”
“Most people lie even to their friends”
 Identifying Themes by Meaning Generation
Interpersonally-shared meaning of
behavior or disorder

Key-words

Level 1 : Personal meanings of key-words

Level 2 : Personal meanings of responses on level 1

Level 3 : Personal meanings of responses on level 2

 Examples of Themes
Themes of Achievement :
 Rejection of limitations
 All facts can be changed
 All results depend on the individual
 Strength of the individual
 Commitment

Themes of Punctuality :
 Acceptance of limitations
 Compromising concerning one’s needs
 Concern with controlling events and situations
 Predictive Matrix of Beliefs
Beliefs about Beliefs about Beliefs about General
Themes Self Norms Goals Beliefs

1)
2)
3)
:.
n)
Behavioral
Intent
 Predicting Behavior on the Basis of
the CO Theory
1. Constructing a CO questionnaire for the behavior of
interest
2. Administrating the CO questionnaire, examining the
availability of the behavioral program and assessing
the behavior
3. If the behavioral program is available, then
Examining the relations between the scores of the CO
questionnaire and the behavior, in terms of
 CO index scores (0-4)  Analyses of variance
 Continuous scores for the 4 belief types  Regression or
Discriminant Function Analyses
Behavior Predictions on the basis of the CO Theory
 Achievement  Accuracy  Speed of performance
 Being late  Pain tolerance (schizophrenics)
 Responses to success  Compliance with  Reactions to success
 Responses to failure treatment regimen (IQ 50-60)
 Conformity (diabetics)  Reactions to failure
 Assertiveness (IQ 50-60)
 Communicability
 Curiosity  Responsiveness to
 Impulsivity  Cleanliness
(schizophrenics) tangible an intangible
 Handling stress rewards (IQ 50-60)
 Orderliness  Taking medication
(schizophrenics)  Quitting smoking
 Intolerance of
ambiguity  Paranoid reactions  Undergoing tests for the
 Planning (schizophrenics) early detection of breast
 Applying different cancer
defense mechanisms  Rigidity (IQ 50-60)
 Cognitive Orientation of Creativity:
CLUSTERS OF THEMES
 Openness to the environment, to possibilities, to others, curiosity
 Openness to one’s inner world, one’s experiences, emotions
 Playfulness, imagination, fantasy, thinking freely about problems, freedom
from limited functionality
 Emphasis on the application of ideas, making things work, changing things
in reality
 Focus on the self, one one’s internal world, investing in the self, exploring the
self, remaining faithful to oneself
 Readiness to contribute to the public welfare, doing things for the public,
awareness of social and public issues
 Freedom, cognitive freedom, insistence on doing things one’s own way
 Need for firm framework, ability to conform to regulations and instructions
 Openness to others, sharing emotions with others
 Social shyness, readiness to differ from others, readiness to do one’s thing
regardless of good or bad evaluation on the part of others
 Cognitive Orientation of Creativity:
CLUSTERS OF THEMES

 Sticking to internal standards of excellence, without

compromising, readiness to sacrifice a lot in order to attain
one’s goals as one sees them
 Emphasizing one’s uniqueness, original contribution
 Dynamism, becoming, moving ahead, changing
 Readiness to make efforts, work hard, invest in whatever
one is doing
 Readiness for risk-taking, and functioning under
uncertainty
 No or low limiting boundaries between different domains
(private and public, personal and interpersonal, subjective
and objective, work and family, moral and esthetic)
Cognitive Orientation of team-work versus loner’s-work
TEAM WORK LONER’S WORK
Emphasis on Process Product
As source of benefits (e.g.,
As burden, chore, requiring
Viewing others enjoyment, relaxation, support,
attention and other resources
admiration, inspiration)
Defending against others
Trusting others
Attitude to others Keeping things away from
Opening oneself up to others
others
No fear of being exploited, not
Exploitation Fear of being exploited
caring about being exploited
One’s experiences and emotions Sharing, exposing Keeping to oneself

Being understood by others Sense of being understood Others cannot understand one

Rivalry, competition, jealousy Low High

Getting the maximum out of
Sometimes Always
oneself
As augmenting the available
Achievement considered As aggrandizing oneself
goods
 Cognitive Orientation of Marketing
and Salesmanship Orientation
 Development of the individual (or of a unit such as,
family or society) entails expansion of needs
 Needs need to be satisfied (it is socially and
psychologically healthy to satisfy needs)
 Loving oneself means doing things for yourself (such as,
purchasing)
 Satisfying needs promotes one’s independence
 When you produce and sell you promote openness, free
flow; Freedom consists in openness, free flow
 Study on Creativity in Management
 Participants: 62 managers
40 men, 22 women
Mean age : 41.6
High-tech businesses
 Dependant variable: Creativity in management
Rating on 1-7 scale
Rated by supervisors
Rated by co-managers
Rated by subordinates
 Study on Creativity in Management
 Predictors: Cognitive orientation –
 4 belief types
 Themes
 Regression analysis: R2 = .85
Order of contributing factors :
Goals .97
Norms .92
General .90
Self .84
Study on Creativity in Management
Major contributing themes
 Openness to environment

 Openness to inner world

 Emphasis on application

 Readiness to contribute to public welfare

 Dynamism

 Risk-taking, uncertainty
Further predictions based on applying the
CO questionnaire of creativity:
 Creativity in resolving engineering problems
 Participants: 120 engineers in different employments
 Creativity in resolving interpersonal conflicts in
the plants
 Participants: 28 supervisors in plants producing
construction materials
 Creativity in design
 Participants: 25 design experts in advertisement
(rating of products)
 Study on team-work
 Participants: 51 managers
30 men, 21 women
Mean age : 37.4
Pharmaceutical and electricity businesses

 Dependant variable: Team-work functioning

Rating on 1-5 scale
Mean rating by team members
No. of raters per subject: 3-5
 Study on team-work
 Predictors: Cognitive orientation –
 4 belief types
 Themes
 Regression analysis: R2 = .82
Order of contributing factors :
Norms .95
Goals .91
Self .88
General .80
 Study on team-work
 Correspondence between cognitive orientation scores of
team-work:
 Cognitive Orientation (CO) scores : 0 – 4
 Correspondence : Assessed in terms of gaps
[absolute numbers]
 Range of gaps: |4| |3| |2| |1|
 Participants:
 15 teams 2-5 members per team
 Variables for each team:
 Correspondence in CO scores (mean)
 Cohesion of team (mean of ratings)
 Correlation coefficient : r = .70
 Changing Behavior on the Basis of
the CO Theory
1. Administering the CO questionnaire for the
behavior of interest
2. Identifying the themes and belief types in which
there are not enough supporting beliefs (“weak
cells”)
3. Promoting belief evocation or construction in
the “weak cells”, focusing on the themes
4. If an adequate behavioral program is not
available, promote its acquisition
 Advantages of the CO Theory
1. The CO theory is an empirically supported theory and
methodology of predicting and changing behaviors
2. Each CO questionnaire predicts a broad range of behaviors in
the relevant domain
3. May be applied to participants of different ages, cultures, and
IQs
4. Applying the procedures of prediction or change does not
require any “mind set” or other conditions and no addition of
further variables
5. Procedures may be applied in regard to any behavior
6. Participants are unable to “adjust” responses to questionnaire to
fit or not their behavior
7. Procedures of predicting and changing behaviors are related
(i.e., economical)
Thank you for your

attention