Foundation Settlement

Settlement is the vertical component of

soil deformation beneath the load under
consideration.
All imposed loads on soils will cause some
settlement due to “elastic compression” of
the foundation soils.
This settlement occurs relatively rapidly
and is termed “elastic” or “immediate”
settlement.
1. Immediate, or those that take place as the
load is applied or within a time period of
about 7 days. The water in the voids is
expelled simultaneously with the application
of load and as such the immediate and
consolidation settlements in such soils are
rolled into one.
2. Consolidation, or those that are time-
dependent and take months to years to
develop. The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy has
been undergoing consolidation settlement for
over 700 years.
 Foundation settlements must be estimated
with great care for buildings, bridges, towers,
power plants , and similar high-cost
structures.
 The stress change q from this added load
produces a time-dependent accumulation of
particle rolling, sliding, crushing, and elastic
distortions in a limited influence zone
beneath the loaded area.
 The statistical accumulation of movements in
the direction of interest is the settlement.
 In the vertical direction the settlement will be
defined as H.
 Many engineers seemed to have the
misconception that any footing designed
with an adequate factor of safety against a
bearing capacity failure would not settle
excessively. Independent settlement
analyses also need to be performed
 Settlement frequently controls the design
of spread footings, especially when B is
large, and that the bearing capacity
analysis is, in fact, often secondary.
 In saturated silts and clays, particularly
those which are normally consolidated,
the settlement will be dominated by
consolidation, as water slowly drains from
these soils to reduce the pore water
pressures to the original levels.
 Settlement of cohesionless soil primarily
occur from the re-arrangement of soil
particles due to the immediate
compression from the applied load
 To enable settlements to be calculated we
have to calculate the change in stresses
within a soil mass, due to imposed
external loads on the soil.
 Elastic stress distributions within the soil
are usually based on the theory of
Boussinesq and so methods of computing
“elastic settlements” usually assume that
Boussinesq theory is applicable.
 Causes of Settlement
i. Static loads, such as those, imposed by the
weight of a structure or an embankement.
ii. Dynamic or transient loads, such as those
produced by machinery or moving loads on
roads or airfield pavements, pile driving,
blasting, etc
iii. Changes in moisture content, for example
from seasonal fluctuations in the water table
iii Rainfall, and evaporation or the absorption
of the water by the rots of larger trees.
iv the effects of nearby construction(e.g.
excavation, pile driving, subsidence of
mines and dewatering) may also be
significant.
v Ground movement on earth slopes, e.g.
surface erosion, landslide or slow creep.
 Components of Settlement
• Immediate (or undrained) settlement, which
occurs immediately upon application of the load,
and which in a saturated soil arises from shear
deformations under constant volume conditions.
( without change of water content)
• Consolidation settlement, which occurs primarily
because of the dissipation of excess pore
pressures in the soil and is therefore time
dependent. This component of settlement arises
mainly from volumetric deformation although
shear deformations are also involved.
• Creep settlement(frequently termed
secondary consolidation) which most
frequently manifest itself as a time dependent
settlement after the completion of excess
pore pressure dissipation, however, significant
creep settlements can also occur undrained
conditions. Creep settlements generally
involve both shear and volumetric
deformations. (only for clay)
Total Settlement or Final Settlemnt
STF = Si + ScF + SSF
Where STF = Total final settlement
Si = Immediate settlement
ScF = Final consolidation settlement
SsF = secondary consolidation
Or F = i + c +s
• In case of foundation on medium dense to dense
sands and gravels , the immediate and consolidation
settlements are of relatively small order and take place
almost simultaneously and a high portion of
settlement is almost completed by the time the full
loading comes on the foundations.(High permeability)
• Similar in the case of loose sands, where as the
settlements on the compression clays are partly
immediate and partly long term movements. The later
takes long time(period of years) and is of greater
proportion. (low permeability)
• Settlement of foundation are not necessarily
confined to very large and heavy structures.
• In soft clays and silts appreciable settlements
can occur under light loadings. (may be in two
storey building cracks can occur or are
observed).
• Differential or relative settlements are of
greater importance to the stability of the
structure.
• If a uniform settlements occur under the
whole area of foundation, it may not be
dangerous, but if differential settlement takes
place, the stresses will develop, serious cracks
or even collapse of the structure will occur if
differential settlements are excessive.
• Skempton and McDonald have divided
damages resulting from settlements into three
categories.
 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT BENEATH THE CORNER
OF A UNIFORMLY LOADED FLEXIBLE AREA
BASED ON THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY
• The net elastic settlement equation for a
flexible surface footing may be written as,
Se q B
 1 μ 
I
2

n f
Es
Where Se  elastic settlement
B  width of foundation
E s  modulus of elasticity of soil
μ  Poissn' s ratio ,
qn  net foundation pressure,
I f  influence factor
 Evaluation of Undrained modulus of
Deformation of Elasticity
Eu = 500 Su (soft sensitive clay Nc)
1000 Su (firm to stiff clay OCR< 2)
1500 Su (very stiff clay OCR> 2)
Approximately.
Si = 0.1Sc for N.C
Si = 0.5Sc for O.C
Settlement of Saturated Clays(NC)
Sc = g Sc

Sc = corrected consolidation settlement

g = correction factor for geological
conditions
Sc = settlement calculated from
consolidation.
Sc = mv x z x H

Where mv = average coefficient of volume

compressibility obtained from
the effective pressure increment in
the particular layer under
consideration.
 z =average effective vertical stress
imposed on the particular layer
resulting from the net
foundation pressure qn
H = Thickness of the particular layer
under consideration.
OR
H
Sc  ( e1  e 2 )
1  e1
H  As defined above
e1  initial void ratio , corresponding to initial
overburden pressure po at the center of the layer
 read from e  log p curve 
e 2  final void ratio corresponding to a pressure
po  σ z .
• OR
H po  σ z
Sc  C c log10
1  e1 po
Where
po  Initial effective overburden pressure .
C c  compressio n index  slope of virgin
compressio n curve e  logp.
Calculation of Cc (empirical eqs.)

C c  0.007 L .L  10%  for N .C .C

C c  0.009 L .L  10%  for remolded clay
C c  1.15 e o  0.35 for all clays
C c  0.75 e 0  0.50 soils with low
plasticity
2.38
1.2  1  eo 
C c  0.141G s   for all clays
 Gs 
Cc = 0.0115 wN
 Consolidation Settlement
Cc H c po  Δpav
Sc  log for N .C .C
1  eo po
Cs Hc po  Δpav
Sc  log for O .C .C with po  Δpav  pc
1  eo po
Cs Hc pc C c H c po  Δpav
Sc  log  log
1  eo po 1  e o pc
for O .C .C with po  Δpav  pc  po
or po  pc  po  Δpav
Where po = Average effective pressure on the clay
layer before the construction of the
foundation.
pav = Average increase of pressure on the
clay layer caused by the foundation
construction.
pc = pre-consolidation pressure.
eo = initial void ratio of the clay.
Cc = compression index.
Cs = swelling index
Hc = thickness of clay layer.
• pav = 1/6 (pt + 4pm + pb)
• Where pt ,pm and pb are the pressure
increases at the top ,middle and bottom of the
clay layer caused by the foundation
construction.
 Settlement of Cohesioless soil
Settlement occurs immediate
 Total settlement = immediate settlement
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
H po  σ z
S  2.3 log10
C po
Where c  constant of compressibility
q
c  1.5 c
po
qc  static cone penetration resistance, kPa
po  Effective overburden pressure at point
of measurement, kPa
qc  upto 2 B
Standard Penetration Test for Shallow
Foundations
saturated sands and gravel
q B qn B
S  0.96 n 
N N
Where qn  Net foundation pressure kPa
N  Average corrected SPT blows within
the seat of settlement .

For silty sands

q B
S2 n
N
If D  4 B ( Deep Foundations )
q B
S1 n
2 N
 eo  e Δe
C  
c σ1 Δ log10
log
10 σ o
C  compression index represents
c
the slope of the linear portion
of the pressure  void ratio curve ,
and remains cons tan t for fairly
l arg e range of pressure .

eo  e
Coefficient of compressibility  av   Δe 
Δσ σ   σo
Δe 1
Coefficient of volume change  m  
1  e o Δσ 
v

Δe av
  av , m v 
Δσ  1  eo
• When the soil is laterally confined, the change
in the volume is proportional to change in
thickness H and the initial volume is
proportional to initial thickness Ho , Hence
ΔH 1
mv   .
H o Δσ 
 ΔH   mv  H o  Δσ 
 Compressibility of Various Types of
Clays
Type Qualitative Coefficient of
Description volume
compressibility,
mv - m2 /MN
Heavily over Very low compressibility Below 0.05
consolidated boulder
clay
Normally consolidated High compressibility 0.3- 1.5
alluvial clays
Very organic alluvial Very high Above 1.5
clays and peats compressibility
 Estimation of Rate of Consolidation
• May be required to know the rate of
settlement of foundation during the long
process of consolidation. This is normally
calculated as the time period required for 50%
or 90 % of the final settlement. The time
required is given by
2
Tv d
t
cv
 Or expressed in m/years units
Tv d  10
2 7

t  years  
3.154  c v  m / s 
2

Tv =Time factor(Theoretical time factor, a pure

number that has been determined for all
conditions of importance and is given in terms
of u
d = H (Thickness of compressible stratum
measured from foundation level for point
which z is small say 10 to 20 kN/m2 for
Drainage in one direction. Or d = H/2 for
drainage at top and bottom of clay stratum.
Cv = Average coefficient of consolidation over
the range of pressure involved.
k k  1  eo 
cv or
mv γ w av  γ w
2
 U 
U  60% Tv  π / 4 
 100 
 U 
U  60% Tv  0.9332 log10  1    0.851
 100 
or Tv  1.781  0.933 log10  100  U % 
 Estimation of Final Settlement
f =i + c
B
oed = mv x z xH qn
= mv x 0.55q x1.5 B
+ immediate
1.5 B Average pressure in the
settlement center of layer = 0.55 qn

0.1qn
1. Structural damages which involves only frame, i.e.
stanchions and beams.
2. Architectural damage involving only the panel walls, floors
or finishes.
1. Visual appearance
2. Serviceability or function
3. Stability

3. Combined structural and architectural damage.

A study has shown that structural damage is likely to take
place when the angular distortion(/L) of the span(l)
between adjacent column or along a given length of load
bearing walls exceeds 1/150 and that architectural. Damage
is likely to occur when the angular distortion exceeds 1/300
 Differential settlement

Total settlement

l
l

/l = angular distortion

Influence of structural rigidity on differential settlement(a) very flexible
structure has little load transfer, and thus could have larger differential
settlements; (b) a more rigid structure has greater capacity for load transfer,
and thus provides more resistance to excessive differential settlement
Skempton and MacDonald(1956)
 Soviet Code of Practice(1955)

Bjerrum [27] recommended the following

limiting angular distortion ($max)
for various structures
Grant et al.[28] correlated ST(max)
and $max for several buildings with
the
following results.
 TABLE 5.20 Recommendation of
European Committee for
Standardization on
Differential Settlement Parameters
 Table 9.1 Tolerable differential
settlement of buildings, in inches,
recommended maximum values in
parentheses
l l

s S max

(Uniform settlement) S min (Tilt) S min
S max
(Nonuniform settlement)
 s = smax- smin = diff. settlement

Δs δ
Angular distortion = 
l l
Causes of differential settlements
1. Variation in soil strata
one part of structure may be founded on a
compressible soil and the other part on
incompressible material. Like (i) glacial
deposits. Lenses of clay in sandy materials. (ii)
Irregular bed rock surface (good rock,
weathered compressible rock) (iii) Wind laid
or water laid deposits of sands and gravels
varying in density.
2. Variation in foundation loading:
Some parts heavy load and other light.
For example, (i) Building consists of high
central tower, low projecting wings, (ii)
factory- heavy and light items of machinery.
3. Large loaded areas on flexible foundations.
(i) Large flexible raft foundation
 Requires rigid raft

Dense Gravel

Compressible soil

Differential settlement Bowl shape

4. Difference in time of construction of
adjacent parts of structure.
This is the case when extension of a
structure is to be done after many years.(then
the completion of original). Long term
consolidation settlement of built structure
may be complete, but the new structure(if of
the same foundation loading as the original)
will eventually settle an equal amount. Special
provisions in the form of vertical joint are
needed to prevent distortion and cracking.
5. Variation in site conditions (History)
one part of building area may be
occupied by heavy structure which had been
demolished or on sloping site it may be
necessary to remove considerable thickness of
overburden to form a level site. This variation
results in different stress conditions.
 Following are the major causes of settlement:
(1) Changes in stress due to:
a. Applied structural load or excavations.
b. Movement of ground water table.
c. Glaciation; and
d. Vibration due to machines and
earthquake etc
(2) Desication due to surface drying and/or
plant life.
(3) Changes due to structure of soil
(secondary compression)
(4) Adjacent excavation
(5) Mining subsidence
(6) Swelling and Shrinkage
(7) Lateral expulsion of soils
(8) Land slides.
 Compression of foundations soils under static
loads.
 Compression of soft clays due to lowering
ground water table.
 Compression of cohesionless soils due to
vibrations
 Compression of foundation soils due to
wetting.
 Shrinkage of cohesive soils caused by drying
 Loss of foundation support due to erosion.
 Loss of foundation support due to excavation
of adjacent ground
 Loss of support due to formation of sink
holes
 Loss of support due to thawing of
permafrost
 Loss of support due to partial or complete
liquefaction.
 Down drag on piles driven through soft
clay.
Methods of Preventing Excessive
Differential Settlement
 Remedial Measures
Philosophy of remedial measures is to (a) reduce
or eliminate settlement (b) design structures to
withstand the settlement.
(a) Reduction of Settlement
To reduce or eliminate settlement, consider
following:
1. Reduce the contact pressure.
2. Reduce compressibility of the soil deposits using
various ground improvement
techniques(stabilization, precompression,
vibroflotation etc.)
(3) Remove soft compressible material such as
peat, muck etc
(4) Build slowly on cohesive soils to avoid
lateral expulsion of a soil mass, and to give
time for pore pressure dissipation.
(5) Consider using deep foundations (piles and
piers)
(6) Provide lateral restraint or counterweight
against lateral expulsion.
 To achieve uniform settlement one can
resolve to:
i. Design footings for uniform pressure
ii. Use of artificial cushion underneath the less
settling foundation parts of the structure.
iii.Build different parts of foundations of
different weight and on different soil at
different depths.
iv.Build the heavier parts of the structure first
(such as towers, and spires for example), and
the lighter parts later.