Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
I. INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
Do you know?
• Statistics is part of our life. You will find statistics
everywhere!
• Sports
• Statistics can help us prepare for the next
rival/game
• In Business
• Statistics can help us in marketing etc.
• Economics
• Statistics can help us understand economic growth
Roles of statistics
• Governance
• Statistics can help us in decision and policy making (eg.
Police ratios in cities)
• Tourism
• Statistics can help us understand tourist preferences
• Engineering
• Statistics can help us determine the endurance of
machinery in different extreme environments before
failure or malfunction
Statistical Inquiry
• It is a designed research that provides
information needed to solve a research
problem.
Step
Step 2: Plan the Study
• All teenagers
• 16 to 19 year old teen agers
• Remember,
• Parameter : Population
• Statistic : Sample
Examples
• Proportions
• Percentages
• Means
• Standard deviations
• Correlation
Example
• Mr. Donaldo Chan, a candidate for vice-mayor in Orion,
Bataan, wants to find out if there is a need to intensify
his campaign efforts against his opponents. He requested
the service of a group of students to interview 1,000 of
the 3,000 registered voters of Orion, Bataan. The survey
results showed that 75% of the 1,000 voters in the
sample will vote for him as vice-mayor.
• Example,
• A basketball player wants to know his average
points in his past 5 games
Inferential Statistics
• We do not simply describe sample data. Rather,
we use the sample data to form conclusions
about the population.
• Example,
• A tire manufacturer wishes to estimate the
lifetime of their tires by testing a sample of 100
tires.
• Lets do the exercises on page 11 of ACS
Why use statistics?
• What you understand from gathered statistics is
vital for decision making!
• Comparisons (which is better or worse?)
• Explanation (how could it happen?)
• Justification (why did it happen?)
• Prediction (what would happen?)
• Estimation (what could it be?)
Comparisons (which is better or worse?)
Justification (why did it happen?)
8 out of
10 kids
love this?
Is it true?
How
come?
Prediction (what would happen?)
II. COLLECTION OF DATA
Data
• It is a collection of observations.
• It has 4 levels:
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
Nominal level
• The Nominal level of measurement has the ff. properties:
• A. The numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object
into distinct non-overlapping, and exhaustive categories
• The interval level has a zero point but is not an absolute zero.
The zero value in this level has an arbitrary interpretation
and does not mean the absence of the property we are
measuring.
Examples of Interval level data
• Temperature in degrees centigrade
• First, equal values represent the same temperature
• Second, the scale is arranged in ascending order so
that higher readings represent hotter temperatures
• Third, we can compare the differences between two
temperature readings
• IQ scores
• Calendar dates
Analysis of Interval level data
• Ratios of two observed values have no meaning since we
have no true zero point.
• It is not right for us to conclude that 30 degrees Celsius
is twice as hot as 15 degrees Celsius just because their
ratio is equal to 2.
Ratio level
• The Ratio level of measurement has the ff. properties:
• A. The numbers in the system are used to classify a
person/object into distinct non-overlapping, and
exhaustive categories
• B. The system arranges the categories according to
magnitude
• C. The system has a fixed unit of measurement
representing a set size throughout the scale
• D. The system has an absolute zero
Examples of Ratio level data
• Allowance of a student (in pesos)
• First, 100 pesos is different from 101 pesos. You can categorize
distinctly.
• Second, 100 pesos is different and less than 101 pesos. You can
see the magnitude and order.
• Third, 100 pesos is less than 1 peso compared to 101 pesos. You
can see clearly how much different the two is (by 1 peso).
• Fourth, 0 pesos means no allowance
• When the data came from asking all the people in the
population, then the study is called a Census.
• Phone interview
• On-line survey
• Personal interview
Examples
• Election surveys by SWS and Pulse Asia
• Non-sampling error
• Error from other sources beyond sampling
fluctuations
Example of sampling error
• Population = { 1 , 2 , 3 }
• Average = 2
• Quota Sampling
Convenience Sampling
• Selects sampling units that come to hand or
are convenient or convenient to get
information from
• Example: Friends, Classmates, Relatives,
people you meet in a restaurant
Judgment Sampling
• In Judgment or purposive sampling, the
researcher chooses a sample that agrees with
his/her subjective judgment of a representative
sample.
• Cluster Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• We select n units (sample size) out of N units
(population size) in the population in such a way
that every distinct sample has an equal chance of
being drawn.
n = 10
r = 3, c=12
Final sample
• The elements corresponding to the selected random numbers
• 150
• 505
• 456
• 068
• 149
• 034
• 546
• 471
• 209
• 458
Simple Random Sampling
• Advantages
• Its design is simple and easy to understand
• Estimation methods are simple and easy
• Disadvantages
• Needs a list of all elements in the population
• When to use
• If the elements are not so spread out out
geographically
Stratified Sampling
• The population of N units is first divided into non-overlapping
subpopulations called strata, and a random sample is drawn
independently from each stratum. The sample consists of all
the elements in the different strata.
• Variable of interest
• Sugar content of fruits
• Stratification variable
• Type of fruit
• Let the color orange denote an orange
• Let the color green denote an apple
• Let the color purple denote grapes
• Let the color red denote cherries
Example
Stratification Variable
After Stratification
Sample using stratified
sampling
Stratified Sampling
• Advantages
• Estimates are more reliable compared to SRS of the
same sample size
• Disadvantages
• It needs a list of all elements of the population,
including their values on the stratification table
• When to use
• If we want to perform separate analysis for certain
subpopulations
Systematic Sampling
• A sampling method wherein the selection of the first element
is at random and the selection of the other elements in the
sample is systematic by subsequently taking every kth element
from the random start.
• n=7
Example
N=14,
n = 7,
k = 14/7 = 2
r=3
Systematic Sampling
• Advantages
• Identifying the units in the sample is easy
• The sample is distributed evenly over the entire population
• Disadvantages
• It requires information on the arrangement of the elements in the
sampling frame
• When to use
• If there is no available list of elements in the population
Cluster Sampling
• Method wherein we divide the population into non
overlapping groups or clusters consisting of one or more
elements, and then select a sample of clusters.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Clustering Variable
After Clustering
1 2 3 4 5
Sample from Cluster Sampling
1 4
Cluster Sampling
• Advantages
• The design needs only a list of clusters and not a list of elements
• Transportation and listing costs are lower
• Disadvantages
• Estimates are usually less reliable when compared to other
sampling designs
• When to use
• If there is no available list of elements
Multistage Sampling
• The population is divided into a hierarchy of sampling units
corresponding to different sampling stages.
• Disadvantages
• Difficult estimation procedures
• When to use
• If the geographic coverage of the population of interest is wide