The Central Nervous

System
 Central
nervous Spinal
Brain
system cord
(CNS)
(Input to CNS (Output from CNS
from periphery) to periphery)

Peripheral
Afferent nervous Efferent
division system division
(PNS)

Sensory Visceral Somatic Autonomic

stimuli stimuli nervous system nervous system

Motor Sympathetic Parasympathetic

neurons nervous system nervous system

Smooth muscle
Skeletal
Cardiac muscle
muscle Glands
Effector organs
(made up of muscle
and gland tissue)
 The nervous and endocrine
systems can be compared.

• The nervous system transmits electrical impulses to

skeletal muscles and the exocrine glands.
• It is “wired”, sending electrical signals through
distinct, highly organized pathways. These pathways
have interconnected parts.
• The endocrine system secretes hormones (chemical
messengers) into the circulating blood to distant sites
in the body.
• These glands are not connected. They are scattered
throughout the body.
 Other Comparisons between the two
systems are:
• Each neuron has a close anatomic relationship to its target cells. It
has a narrow range of influence.
• A neuron releases a specific neurotransmitter to a specific target
cell.
• The target cells have specific receptors that bind to the
neurotransmitter secreted by a neuron.
• Although that neuron can potentially signal other cells, it is limited to
the target cells in close proximity to that neuron.
• A group of endocrine cells secretes a specific hormone into the
blood. Although the hormone is circulated throughout the body,
only specific target cells have receptors for a specific hormone.
• A hormone cannot influence all body cells. It influences the target
cells with receptor cells that bind to that hormone.
• The nervous system coordinates rapid, precise
responses.
• Its signal is an action potential. The duration of
this signal is brief.
• The target cells are skeletal muscles and glands.
• The endocrine system controls activities of
longer duration.
• This system requires a flow of blood to send a
message.
• The effect of a hormone lasts longer.
• The nervous and endocrine systems
are interconnected functionally.
• Often they influence the same body
process, such as the rate of heartbeat.
• Neuroendocrinology is the study of the
relationships between these two
systems.
 The nervous system has two
branches: central (CNS) and
peripheral (PNS).
• The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.
• The PNS has two main divisions:
– The afferent division sends information to the CNS.
– The efferent division sends information away from the CNS
and to effector organs.
• The efferent nervous system consists of two systems.
The somatic nervous signals skeletal muscles. The
autonomic nervous system signals
• smooth and cardiac muscle plus gland.
• The autonomic nervous system has two branches:
sympathetic and parasympathetic.
 There are three classes of neurons.

• An afferent neuron sends signals toward the CNS. It

generates action potentials from sensory receptors at its
peripheral end. It has a long axon and is found mainly in
the PNS.

• An efferent neuron sends signals away from the CNS to an

effector organ. It has a long peripheral axon in the PNS.

• An interneuron is found entirely within the CNS. It lies

between afferent and efferent neurons.
 Central
Peripheral
nervous system
nervous system
(spinal cord)

Cell
Axon body
terminals Afferent neuron

Central Peripheral axon

axon (afferent fiber) Receptor

Interneuron

Axon
terminals
Efferent neuron
Effector organ
(muscle or gland)
Cell Axon
body (efferent fiber)
* Efferent autonomic nerve pathways consist of a two-neuron chain between
the CNS and the effector organ.
Glial cells do not send signals. They
support interneurons physically,
metabolically, and functionally. There are
four main kinds.

• The astrocyte has many functions:

– holding neurons together
– guiding neurons during development
– establishing a blood-brain barrier
– repairing brain injuries
– playing a role in neurotransmitter activity
– taking up excess K+ from the brain ECF
 The oligodendrocyte forms myelin
sheaths around axons in the CNS.
• Microglia are the immune defense of the CNS.
• They are scavengers.
• Ependymal cells line the internal cavities of the CNS.
 The CNS is protected several
ways.
• The cranium encloses the brain. The
vertebral column encloses the spinal cord.
• It is wrapped by several meninges: the outer
dura mater, the middle arachnoid mate, and
the innermost pia mater.
• The brain is surrounded by the cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF).
• The blood-brain barrier limits access
• of blood-borne substances to the brain.
 The CSF is formed and
circulates.

• It is produced by the choroid

plexuses inside the
ventricles.
• It circulates through the
ventricles.
• From the fourth ventricle it
enters the subarachnoid
space, between the
arachnoid mater and pia
mater.
• Arachnoid villi is this space
drain the CSF into the blood.
 The blood brain barrier is highly
selective.
• It is a series of capillaries that regulate
the exchange between the blood and
the brain.
• These capillaries allow a limited number
of substances to pass from the blood to
brain cells.
• The brain needs a constant input of
oxygen and glucose from the blood.
The CNS consists of the brain
and spinal cord.
• The outline for brain anatomy is:
– Brain stem
– Cerebellum
– Forebrain
– Diencephalon
– Hypothalamus
– Thalamus
– Cerebrum
– Basal nucleii
– Cerebral cortex
 Brain component

Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)
Basal nuclei

Thalamus
(medial) Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebellum

Midbrain
Brain stem
Brain stem Pons (midbrain, pons,
and medulla)
Medulla

Spinal cord
The brain stem is continuous with the
spinal cord.

• It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It controls life-

sustaining processes such as breathing and digestion.
• The cerebellum is attached to the top rear part of the brainstem.

• It maintains balance, enhances muscle tone, and

coordinates/plans skilled voluntary muscle activity.
The diencephalon is on top of the
brain stem. It houses the:

• hypothalamus - It controls many

homeostatic functions that maintain the
stability of the internal environment.
• thalamus - It performs some primitive
sensory processing.
The cerebrum is on top of the
lower brain regions. It is highly
developed in humans.

• The cerebral cortex is its highly

convoluted, outer layer of gray matter.
It covers an inner core of white matter.
• The cerebrum has an inner core of
basal nucleii located deep within the
white matter.
 The electroencephalogram is a record of
postsynaptic activity of cortical neurons.
• It consists of various wave patterns.
– It is used as a clinical tool in diagnosis of cerebral dysfunction.
– It can distinguish various sleep stages.
– It is used for legal determination of brain death.
The basal nucleii have an inhibitory role in
motor control. Their functions include:

• inhibiting muscle tone throughout the body

• selecting and maintaining purposeful muscle activity while
inhibiting useless movement
• monitoring and controlling slow, sustained contractions
The thalamus is a relay station. It is also a
synaptic integrating center for processing
sensory input on its way to the cerebral
cortex.
• The hypothalamus regulates many homeostatic
functions.
• They include:
– controlling body temperature
– controlling thirst and urine production
– controlling food intake
– controlling anterior pituitary hormone secretion
– production of posterior pituitary hormones
– controls uterine contractions and milk ejection
– serves as an ANS coordinating center
– plays a role in emotional and behavioral patterns
The limbic system functions with
the higher cortex.

• It plays a key role in emotion.

• It works with the higher cerebral cortex
to control behavioral patterns.
• The limbic system has reward and
punishment centers.
• The neurotransmitters in the pathways
for emotional behavior include
norepinephrine, dopamine, and
serotonin.
The functions of the cerebellum include body
balance and the planning and executing of voluntary
movement.

• The vestibulocerebellum maintains balance and controls body movement.

• The spinocerebellum enhances muscle tone and coordinates skilled,
voluntary movements.
• The cerebrocerebellum plays a role in planning and initiating voluntary
movement.
 Top
Part of the
limbic system Corpus callosum

Cerebral cortex

Front
Thalamus
of (wall of third
brain
ventricular cavity)

Bridge
Pineal gland
that connects
the two halves
of the thalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Pituitary gland
Brain stem

Spinal cord
Brain stem

Cerebellum

Vestibulocerebellum
Spinocerebellum
Cerebrocerebelum
 Unfolded

Regulation of
muscle tone,
coordination of
skilled voluntary
movement

Planning and
initiation of
voluntary activity

Maintenance of Vestibulocerebellum
balance, control
of eye movements Spinocerebellum
Cerebrocerebelum
 Motor cortex

Informed of
Spinocerebellum
motor command

Makes adjustments Motor command

as necessary to muscles

Informed of
actual performance

Activates receptors
in muscles and joints Movement Skeletal muscles
 The brain stem is the medulla, pons, and
midbrain.
• It is a vital link between the
spinal cord and higher brain
regions.
– Most of the cranial nerves are
connected to the brain stem.
– It has centers to control heart
and blood vessel function.
– It plays a role in modulating
the sense of pain.
– It plays a role in regulating
muscle reflexes involved in
equilibrium and posture.
– The reticular formation ranges
from the brainstem to the
thalamus. It controls cortical
alertness and direct attention.
– It has sleep centers.
Major Functions Brain component
1. Sensory perception
2. Voluntary control of movement
Cerebral cortex
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements Basal nuclei
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness Thalamus
4. Role in motor control
1. Regualtion of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature
control, thirst, urine output, and food intake Hypothalamus
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
2. Enhancement of muscle tone Cerebellum
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity
1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves Brain stem
2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers (midbrain, pons,
3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture and medulla)
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle
Reticular
activating
system

Cerebellum
Visual
impulses

Reticular
Brain Auditory impulses
formation
stem
Spinal cord

Ascending Descending motor

sensory tracts tracts
The spinal cord extends through the
vertebral canal. 31 pairs of spinal nerves
are connected to it.

• The cord ranges vertically from a large

hole at the base of the skull.
• The attached spinal nerve pairs are:
– eight cervical
– twelve thoracic
– five lumbar
– five sacral
– one coccygeal
The spinal cord consists of inner
gray matter and outer white
matter.
The components of the reflex arc are:
– 1.Receptor
– 2.Afferent pathway
– 3.Integrating center
– 4.Efferent pathway
– 5.Effector

• The receptor detects a stimulus

(e.g., touching a hotplate).
• The effector makes the response
of the reflex (e.g., withdrawal of
the arm).
• The integrating center is within
the gray matter of the spinal
cord. Its neurons connect a
given input (from the afferent
pathway) to the proper output
(from the efferent pathway).