Chapter 16

Collecting Observational Data

Phenomena Amenable to Research
Observation
• Characteristics and conditions of
individuals
• Activities and behavior
• Skill attainment and performance
• Verbal communication
• Nonverbal communication
• Environmental characteristics
Units of Observation

Molar approach—observation of large

units of behavior (e.g., aggression)
Molecular approach—observation of
more fine-grained units of behavior
(e.g., facial expressions, gestures)
The Observer—Observed
Relationship: Two Continua

• Intervention
(directed settings)………No intervention
• Concealment ………………No concealment
Observation in Qualitative and
Quantitative Studies

• Qualitative studies: Unstructured

observation in naturalistic settings
– Includes Participant observation
• Quantitative studies: Structured
observation of pre-specified behaviors
The Observer—Participant Role in
Participant Observation

Leininger’s Four-Phase Sequence:

• Primarily observation
• Primarily observation with some
participation
• Primarily participation with some
observation
• Reflective observation
Getting Started in a Participant
Observation Study

• Getting an overview (e.g., a windshield

survey)
• Gaining entrée
• Establishing rapport/developing trust
Aspects That Can Be Observed in
Participant Observation

• Physical setting
• Participants’ characteristics
• Activities and interactions
• Frequency and duration of events
Aspects That Can Be Observed in
Participant Observation

• Precipitating factors leading to an

event
• Organization of the event
• Intangible factors (e.g., what did not
happen?)
Spradley’s Levels of Observation
During Ethnographic Fieldwork

• Descriptive observation
• Focused observation
• Selective observation
Observational Locations in
Participant Observation

• Single positioning: staying in one

location
• Multiple positioning: moving around
the site to get different perspectives)
• Mobile positioning: following a single
participant as he/she moves to
different locations
Methods of Recording Unstructured
Observations
• Log (field diary)
• Field notes
– Descriptive (observational) notes
– Reflective notes:
• Methodologic notes
• Theoretical notes (or analytical notes)
• Personal notes
Structured Observations
Categories systems  Checklists
• Exhaustive system:
All behaviors of a specific type recorded; each
behavior assigned to one mutually exclusive
category

• Nonexhaustive system (sign system):

Specific behaviors, but not all behaviors,
recorded
Observational Rating Scales

• Ratings are on a descriptive continuum,

typically bipolar
• Ratings can occur:
– at specific intervals
– upon the occurrence of certain events
– after an observational session (global
ratings)
Sampling for Structured Observations
•Time-sampling—sampling of time intervals
for observation
 Random sampling of intervals of a
given length
 Systematic sampling of intervals of a
given length
 All intervals of a given length
•Event sampling—observation of integral
events
Observer Biases

• Enhancement of contrast effect

• Central tendency bias
• Assimilatory biases
• Halo effect
• Error of leniency
• Error of severity