Blackbody Radiation

Radiation and Temperature

• What determines the type of electromagnetic radiation
emitted by the Sun, stars, and other astronomical objects?
Temperature
• Electromagnetic radiation is emitted when electric charges
accelerate, changing either the speed or the direction of
their motion.
• The hotter the object, the faster the atoms move in the
object, jostling one another, colliding with more electrons,
changing their motions with each collision.
• Each collision results in the emission of electromagnetic
radiation- radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays. How
much of each depends on the temperature of the object
producing the radiation.
 Measuring Temperature
• Atoms and molecules that make up
matter are in constant random motion.
• Temperature is a direct measure of this
internal motion.
– The higher the temperature,
the faster (on average) the random motion
of particles in matter.
– Temperature of an object represents the
average thermal energy of particles
that make up that object.
TWO MAJOR SCALES
°F and °C

• Fahrenheit scale based

on temperature that salt
water freezes 0°F (lower
than pure water).
• Related to Celsius
(or Centigrade)
by the formula:
F = 9/5 C + 32
C = 5/9(F - 32).
ABSOLUTE SCALE K AND °C

• Celsius
(originally Centigrade) based on
freezing and boiling point of pure
water, chosen to be 0°C and 100°C
• Kelvin based on absolute coldest
temperature possible (absolute
zero)
• Related by
K = C – 273.15
C = K + 273.15
 Temperature Scales
All
Temperature Hydrogen Water Water molecular
Scale fuses boils freezes motion
stops
18,000,032o
Fahrenheit 212oF 32oF -459oF
F

10,000,000o
Celsius 100oC 0oC -273oC
C

10,000,273
Kelvin K
273 K 373 K 0K
 Radiation Laws
• Blackbody Radiation
– Planck Spectrum
– Characteristics of Radiator
• Wien’s Law
– Relates wavelength at which a blackbody emits its
maximum energy, max, to the temperature, T, of the
blackbody.
• Stefan-Boltzmann Law
– Relates total energy emitted per second per square
meter by a blackbody, E, to the 4th power of its absolute
temperature T.
 Blackbody Radiation
• Consider an idealized object that absorbs all
the electromagnetic radiation that falls on it -
called a “blackbody.”
• A blackbody absorbs all energy incident on it
and heats up until it is emitting energy at the
same rate that it absorbs energy.
• The equilibrium temperature reached is a
function of the total energy striking the
blackbody each second.
 Characteristics of Blackbody
Radiation
• A blackbody with a temperature higher than
absolute zero emits some energy at all
frequencies (or wavelengths).
• A blackbody at higher temperature emits
more energy at all frequencies
(or wavelengths) than does a cooler one.
• The higher the temperature of a blackbody,
the higher the frequency (the shorter the
wavelength) at which the maximum energy
is emitted.
 Blackbody Radiation
• Blackbody radiation:
the distribution of radiation
emitted by any heated
object.
• The curve peaks at a
single, well-defined
frequency and falls off to
lesser values above and
below that frequency.

The overall shape (intensity vs frequency) is characteristic

of the radiation emitted by any object, regardless of its
size, shape, composition, or temperature.
 Planck Spectrum
• As an object is heated, the
radiation it emits peaks at
higher and higher
frequencies.
• Shown here are curves
corresponding to
temperatures of
300 K (room temperature), 1000
K (glow dull red), 4000 K
(red hot), and 7000 K
(white hot).
 “Red Hot”

• As something begins to heat-up, there

probably isn’t any visible information to tell
you it is warming up.
• Once it starts to glow red, you have learned it’s
hot – don’t touch.
– Like the stove burners.
• As it continues getting hotter, it changes to
orange, then yellow, green, blue and white.
 Wien’s Law
• The Sun and stars emit energy that approximates
the energy from a blackbody.
• It is possible to estimate their temperatures by
measuring the energy they emit as a function of
wavelength - that is, by measuring their color.
• The wavelength at which a blackbody emits its
maximum energy can be calculated by

 max = 3,000,000 / T
where the wavelength  max is in nanometers (10-9 m)
and the temperature T is in kelvin.

• This relationship is known as Wien’s law.

 Effect of Temperature

Hotter objects are brighter and “bluer”

than cooler objects.
Getting
Warmer
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Type of Wavelength Radiated by Typical Sources
Radiation Range (nm) Objects at this
Temperature
Gamma rays Less than More than No astronomical sources this
0.01 108 K hot; some produced in nuclear
reactions.
X rays 0.01 – 20 106 – 107 K Gas in clusters of galaxies;
supernova remnants; solar
corona.
Ultraviolet 20-400 105 – 106 K Supernova remnants; very
hot stars.
Visible 400-700 103 – 105 K Stars

Infrared 103 – 106 10 – 103 K Cool clouds of dust and gas,

planets, satellites
Radio More than Less than 1 K No astronomical objects this
106 cold: radio emission
produced by electrons
moving in magnetic fields
 Problem - Wien’s law
• The average surface temperature of the Sun is about
5800 K. At what wavelength is maximum energy
emitted from the Sun?
• If T = 5800 K
• and max = 3,000,000 / T ,
• then max = 3,000,000 / 5800 = 520 nm.
• 520 nm is at the middle of the visible light portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
• The human eye is most sensitive to the wavelengths
at which the Sun puts out the most energy.
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• If add up the contributions from all parts of the
E-M spectrum, obtain the total energy emitted
by a blackbody over all wavelengths.
• That total energy emitted per second per
square meter by a blackbody at temperature T
is proportional to the 4th power of its
absolute temperature.
• This is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law,

E = T4
where E stands for the total energy
and  is a constant number.
 Problem - Stefan-Boltzmann Law
ET = T4
•The average surface • E2T =  (2T)4
temperature of the Sun
• =  (2)4 T4
is about 5800 K.
If the Sun were twice as hot, • = (2)4 ( T4 )
2 T = 2 x 5800 K • = 16 ( T4 )
= 11,600 K,
how much more energy would• = 16 ET
it radiate than it does
now?
The energy radiated by the
Sun would be 24 or 16 times
more than now.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Energy from the Sun
Why Do We Need Space Telescopes?
 Opacity of the Atmosphere
• Only a small fraction of the radiation produced by astronomical objects
actually reaches our eyes because atoms and molecules in the Earth's
atmosphere absorb certain wavelengths and transmit others.
• Opacity is proportional to the amount of radiation that is absorbed by
the atmosphere.

Half-Absorption Altitude (km)

Wavelength (angstroms)