EARLIEST MICROSCOPIC

OBSERVATIONS
• 1661: King Charles II of England commissioned a
microscopic examination of the natural world
– The focus of the royal interest at that time was on insect
anatomy
• Robert Hooke: used the compound microscope to
observe cork
– Described a cork as having a perforated and porous surface
like honeycomb
– He called these porous structures as cellulae “small room”
– Micrographia: a manuscript containing Hooke’s observations
and drawings
 EARLIEST MICROSCOPIC
OBSERVATIONS

• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek:

a Dutch naturalist who was
credited to be the first to
study magnified cells
– Invented a simple microscope
with only one lens
– Coined the terms animalcules
“small animals”
– The first to observe living
cells
 THE CELL THEORY

• 1838: German botanist,

Mathias Jakob Schleiden
focused his interest on the
study of plant cells
• 1839: German physiologist,
Theodor Schwann,
examined animal cells
• Cells are fundamental units of
life and that the bodies of living
organisms are made up of cells
 THE CELL THEORY

•1858: German
physician, Rudolf Carl
Virchow proposed a
third tenet in the cell
theory
•All cells come from other
cells through the process
of cell division
 THE CELL THEORY

•All organisms are composed of one or more

cells
•Cells are the smallest and basic units of
structure and function in organisms
•Cells arise only from previously existing
cells
 RECAP
Cell Theory Contributors Key Notes
There are 3 major parts of There are 5 contributors Robert Hooke
the cell theory: to the cell theory: ocame up with the name cells

1.All organisms are Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

1.Robert Hooke
made of cells. oreferred to living cells called
animalcules (plant & animal)
2.Anton van after observing a drop of pond
2.All existing cells are water
produced by other Leeuwenhoek
Matthias Schleiden
living cells. 3.Matthias Schleiden oprojected plant cells are made
3.The cell is the most of cells
basic unit of life. 4.Theodor Schwann Theodor Schwann

These three parts were 5.Rudolf Virchow odetermined all animals are
made of cells (1st statement of
discovered between the cell theory)
1665-1838. Rudolf Virchow
ostated all cells come from
preexisting cells (2nd statement
of the cell theory)
 MICROSCOPE

•Micrograph: image produced by a

microscope
•Magnification: the measure of the optical
instruments for an object to appear larger
than its actual size
•Resolution: indicates clarity of an image
 MICROSCOPE

• Compound microscope:
commonly used in
schools
– Used to examine cells
and sections of tissues
with the use of
sunlight or artificial
light to illuminate an
object being examined
 MICROSCOPE

•Stereomicroscope:
used to examine the
external structures
of a specimen such
as insects
 MICROSCOPE

• Phase-contrast
microscope: used
to examine highly
transparent objects
such as unstained
cells
 MICROSCOPE

• Electron microscope: uses streams of

electrons to enlarge objects up to
10 000 000x
• Transmission Electron Microscope
(TEM)
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
 MICROSCOPE

•Transmission electron
microscope: used to study
internal structures of cells
through sectioned
specimens
•Scanning electron
microscope: used to
examine the 3D surface
structures or shapes of
objects such as viruses
 MICROSCOPE

•Fluorescent
microscope: used
in studying the
location of certain
organelles or
substances inside
the cell
 MICROSCOPE

•Confocal scanning
microscope: used to
examine the 3D structure
of a cell or organelle
without cutting the
specimen into sections
– Uses laser beams to scan
across the specimen
 MICROSCOPE

Video microscopy:
the process where objects
examined under
microscopes can be
photographed or be
viewed on television or
computer screens
 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL
PARTS OF A CELL

Cell membrane or plasma membrane: regulates

the passage of materials into and out of the cell
 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL
PARTS OF A CELL

Cytoplasm: a gel-
like substance
making up the
cell’s internal
environment
 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURAL
PARTS OF A CELL

Nucleus: contains the

genetic material in the
form of DNA that
provides instructions to
make proteins,
regulates activities and
enables cells to
reproduce
 MAIN TYPES OF CELLS

Prokaryotes
Pro: before
Karyon: nut

Eukaryotes
Eu: True
Karyon: nut
 PROKARYOTES

•Fossil records show that the

first kind of cell to develop
around 3.5 billion years ago
were prokaryote
– Bacteria, blue-green algae,
and archaeans
– Their structure allow them to
reproduce very fast
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
PROKARYOTE
• They can live in a broad • Circular molecule of
range of environmental
conditions.
DNA.
• Many grow and divide • Have Cell Wall
rapidly. • Some have
• Some do not need polysaccharide
oxygen to survive. capsule
• Some make their own • Flagella
food.
 PROKARYOTES

•Plasma membrane:
semipermeable membrane
encased in a rigid cell wall
•Capsule: protective layer made
up of polysaccharides lying
outside the cell wall
•Nucleoid region: irregular-
shaped region where it stores its
genetic material in the form of
DNA
 PROKARYOTES

•Ribosomes: site of protein

synthesis
•Plasmid: an independent
circular DNA structure, apart
from its chromosomal DNA
•Flagellum: locomotion
•Fimbriae: additional smaller and
bristle-like fibers that grow over
prokaryotic cell’s surface
 PROKARYOTES

•Conjugation pili:
tubular structures
present in the cell
surface that function for
cell-to-cell
communication and pass
DNA from one
bacterium to the next
 EUKARYOTES

•About 1.8 billion years ago,

a new kind of cell evolved to
a larger size and more
complex structural
components
– Fungi, plants, animals and
protists
– Have their genetic material
encased within a distinct nucleus
CELL ORGANELLES TO KNOW

•The nucleus
•Ribosomes
•Endoplasmic Reticulum (smooth and rough)
•Vesicle
•Golgi apparatus
•Lysosomes
•Mitochondria
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/plant3.gif
 CELL

•Cell is surrounded by walls

– Act as a perimeter that separates it from
the rest of the outside environment
– Provides stable structure and support
– Within these walls are the various
openings that allow entry and exit of
materials
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)

– A thin barrier that forms a boundary, separating an
individual cell from the external environment
– A living system that controls the passage of
important molecules, ions and gases
– Consists of a double layer of phospholipid embedded
with a variety of molecules
• Each phospholipid molecule is composed of a charged
phosphate group, glycerol and 2 fatty acid chains
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)

• The glycerol and the phosphate group are joined to form
the “head” of a phospholipid
– Bears a charge, a polar molecule
– In the exterior of cell membrane, the head face toward the
outside environment
– Others are facing the interior cytoplasm
• Fatty acids make up the “tail”
– Nonpolar molecule
– Tails are attracted to each other
– Face inward where there is no water
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Functions of some membrane structures

• Cholesterol molecules: help strengthen the cell
membrane, making it more flexible but less fluid
• Carbohydrates: serve as identification tags, enabling cells
to distinguish one type of cell from another
• Membrane Proteins
– Transport proteins: help material across the membrane
– Channel proteins: form tunnels that help cells to import or export
needed materials and expel wastes
– Cell recognition proteins: enable cells to distinguish own cells
from that of other organisms
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Functions of some membrane structures

• Membrane Proteins
– Enzymatic proteins: participate in metabolic reactions such as
degradative and synthetic reactions
– Cytoskeleton proteins: act as muscle and skeleton to maintain
cell shape and motility
– Junction proteins: assist cell-to-cell adhesion and communication
between cells
– Receptor proteins: facilitate exchange of signals with other cells
by changing shape to allow a specific molecule, the ligand, to
bind on it
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Scientists also described the cell membrane

through a fluid mosaic model due to the
arrangement of molecules that make up a cell
membrane
– The cell membrane is described as flexible and not
rigid
– The variety of molecules scattered along the
membrane provides a variety of different textures
and patterns making up a mosaic
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Cell wall
– A rigid layer that gives protection, rigid support, and
shape to the cell
– In plants and algae, cell walls are made up of
polysaccharide cellulose
• Have openings or channels that let water and other
molecules to diffuse
– In fungi, cell walls are made up of chitin
– In bacteria, they are composed of peptidoglycan
CELL STRUCTURE FOR PROTECTION

•Cytoplasm
– Fills the space between the nucleus and the
cell membrane
• Cytosol: fluid portion consisting mainly of water
and excluding organelles in it
– Has high concentration of water
– Necessary for maintaining cell structure
– Water: acts as a natural solvent
 GENETIC CONTROL ORGANELLES

•Nucleus
– The storehouse of genetic information in the
form of DNA inside the cells
– Directs all activities of the cell
– Performs crucial tasks such as protecting the
DNA at all times from damage and its
instructions must be made available for use at
proper times
 GENETIC CONTROL ORGANELLES

•Nucleus
– DNA: a long chain of molecule, which can be segmented into
portions called genes
• Packaged by a special group of proteins called histones,
forming a complex structure called chromatin
– Nuclear envelope: a special membrane that encloses the
DNA
– Nuclear pores: allow large molecules to pass between the
nucleus and cytoplasm
– Nucleolus: where small organelles essential for making
proteins are assembled
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Endoplasmic reticulum
– An interconnected of thin and folded membrane that
fills much of the large portion of cytoplasm
– Arranged like a maze of enclosed spaces with any
creases and folds
– The interior of this maze is called the lumen
• Site for many processes such as the production of
protein and lipids
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Endoplasmic reticulum
– Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): surface of the ER
– covered with ribosomes
• Proteins are made in the ribosomes and enters lumen for
modification
– Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): surface of the
ER not studded with ribosome
• Responsible for the production of lipids and breaking down
of drugs and alcohols
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Golgi Apparatus
– Layered stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces where
proteins are processed, sorted and delivered
– The membrane of GA have enzymes that further
modify the proteins
– Finished products are packaged in this organelle
• Some packaged proteins are stored temporarily within the
GA
• Some are transported within the cell or carried to the
membrane where they will be eventually secreted out
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Vesicles
– Small membrane-bound sacs that encloses the
proteins
– Categorized as storage vesicles, transport vesicles,
secretory vesicles
– Generally short-lived and are formed and recycled as
needed by the cell
– Some may develop into lysosomes and vacuoles
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Vacuoles
– Fluid-filled sac for the storage of material needed by
the cell that include water, food molecules, inorganic
ions, and enzymes
– Central vacuole: a single large vacuole that takes up
most of the space inside a plant cell
• Contains other substances such as toxins, waste
products and pigments that give colors to the
petals of a flower
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Lysosomes
– Round-shaped, membrane-bound structure
containing chemicals that can break down
materials in the cell
– Contain powerful enzymes, known as
lysozyme, which can defend a cell from
invading bacteria and viruses
– Break down damaged and worn-out cell parts
MANUFACTURING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION
AND BREAKDOWN OF ORGANELLES

•Peroxisomes
– Surrounded by a single membrane, containing
digestive enzymes for breaking down toxic
materials
– Carry oxidative enzymes
– Absorb nutrients that had been acquired by cells
– Catalase: enzyme that destroys H2O2
– Help in breaking down alcohol in eh body
 ENERGY-PROCESSING ORGANELLES

•Mitochondria
– Supply energy to the cell
– Bean-shaped and have two membranes
• Inner membrane has many folds that greatly increase its
surface area
• Within this inner folds and compartments, a series of
chemical reactions converts molecules from food into
usable energy
– Have their own ribosomes and DNA
 ENERGY-PROCESSING ORGANELLES

•Plastids
– Chloroplasts: organelles that help a plant to
convert solar energy to chemical energy
• Carry out photosynthesis
• Highly compartmentalized
• Thylakoids: contain chlorophyll, a light absorbing
pigment
• Stroma: liquid portion of chloroplast
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Centrosome and Centrioles

– Centrosome: a small dense region of cytoplasm that serves as
the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC)
• In animal cells, it contains two barrel-like structures called
centrioles
• Centrioles: cylinder-shaped organelles made of nine
triplets of short microtubules arranged in the ring
• Microtubules develop from each centrosome, forming
spindle fibers
• Centrioles also organize microtubules to form cilia and
flagella
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cilia and Flagella

– Two locomotory projections in eukaryotes
– Allow the cell to move like an oar or a whip
– Both have the same structural composition, containing
nine microtubule doublets arranged in a circle around
two central microtubules called the 9 + 2 pattern
• Cilia: little hairs
• Flagella: whip or tail
• Results in swimming or sweeps liquid across the cell
surface
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cytoskeletons
– A system of filaments or fibers that is present in the
cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
– Made up of small protein subunit, forming long
threads or fibers that can crisscross the entire cell,
thus providing sturdy mechanical support
– Help cell to organize its contents and to direct the
cell’s movement in response to the cell’s changing
needs and signals from its external environment
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cytoskeletons
– Flexible networks of proteins that provide structural support
to the cell:
• Microtubules: filaments characterized to be lengthy and
the thickest among the filaments
– Stiff, hollow tubes that give the cell shape and serve as
anchorage for the membrane-bound organelles
– Act as “tracks” for the movement of vesicles and other
components
– Form spindle fibers that pull each sister chromatid
– Form permanent structures like flagella
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cytoskeletons
– Flexible networks of proteins that provide structural
support to the cell:
• Intermediate filaments: ropelike in appearance
– Give the cell tensile strength or the ability to stretch
without breaking apart
– Prominently present in skin cells or other body sites
subject to mechanical stress
– Important in ensuring the strength of claws, hairs and
feathers of animals
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cytoskeletons
– Flexible networks of proteins that provide structural
support to the cell:
• Microfilaments: thinnest among the
cytoskeletons and also known as actin filaments
– Tiny flexible filaments that provide protective
meshwork under the plasma membrane
– Actin filaments: important in cell movement, as they
allow muscles to contract and relax
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cell surfaces and Junctions

– Junctions: structure that joins the cell together
• In plants, adjacent cells function in a coordinated way by
communicating through numerous channels known as
plasmodesmata
• Plasmodesma – plays an important role in the sharing of
water, nourishment, and chemical messages among plant
cells
• Animal cells secrete a sticky layer of glycoproteins called
extracellular matrix that acts as glue to hold cells in
tissues
ORGANELLES FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORT,
MOVEMENT AND COMMUNICATION

•Cell surfaces and Junctions

– Types of Cell Junctions
• Tight junctions – join two cells tightly together,
forming a leakproof sheet
• Anchoring junctions – act like rivets or screws
together with cytoskeletal fibers to form strong
sheets
• Gap junctions – play a similar role to that of
plasmodesmata