Light Sources for Optical

Communications

Optical Communication Systems

Xavier Fernando
RCL Lab
 Considerations with
Optical Sources
 Physical dimensions to suit the fiber  9
micron fiber core diameter
 Narrow radiation pattern (beam width)  to
launch enough light into low NA fiber
 Linearity (output light power proportional to
driving current)  important for analog
systems
 Considerations …

 Ability to be directly modulated by varying

driving current  output light varies with
injected current
 Fast response time (wide band)  for high
speed links
 Adequate output power into the fiber  to
go further without repeaters
 Considerations…

 Narrow spectral width (or line width)  to

reduce ___________ ?
 Stability  LED better than LASER
 Driving circuit issues  impedance
matching
 Reliability and cost
 Solid State (Semiconductor)
Light Sources
 Considering all these factors following SLS
are used in fiber optics
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)  Forward biased
PN junction
 LASER  LED with stimulated emission to
provide (1) low line width (2) low beam width
(3) high bandwidth (4) high power and (5)
coherency
 Semiconductor Physics
 LEDs and laser diodes consist of a
pn junction constructed of direct-
bandgap III-V materials.
 When the pn junction is forward
biased, electrons and holes are
injected into the p and n regions,
respectively.
 The injected minority carriers
recombine either radiatively (a
photon of energy hν is emitted) or The pn junction is
nonradiatively (the recombination known as the active or
energy is dissipated as heat). recombination region.

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 Energy-Bands

In a pure Gp. IV material, equal number of holes and electrons

exist at different energy levels.
 n-type material

Adding group V impurity will create an n- type material

(more electrons than holes)
 p-type material

Adding group III impurity will create a p-type material

 Light Emission

 Basic LED operation: When an electron

jumps from a higher energy state (Ec) to a
lower energy state (Ev) the difference in
energy Ec- Ev is released either
 as a photon of energy E = h (radiative
recombination)
 as heat (non-radiative recombination)
 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 For fiber-optics, the LED should have a
high radiance (light intensity), fast response
time and a high quantum efficiency
 Emitted wavelength depends on band gap
energy Eg
 Eg depends on the type of material (ratio
between them)
hc
1.24
Eg  h   eV
  ( m)
 Physical Design

 Double hetero structure is used to improve

light output (2 p type and 2 n type)
 Each region shall also have the right
refractive index to guide the light (optical
property)
 Light is confined in the active region (high
ref. index) due to waveguide operation
Double-Heterostructure configuration
 Light-Emitting Diodes
LED features:
 Made of GaAlAs (850 nm) or InGaAsP (S-L bands)
 Broad spectral output (50 to 150 nm)
 Optical output powers less than -13 dBm (50 μW)
 Can be modulated only up a few hundred Mb/s
 Less expensive than laser diodes
 Edge-emitter or surface emitter structures
 Edge-Emitting LED

The active region is embedded into a

waveguide structure so that the light is directed an edge
 Larger active region
 More directional radiation (similar to LASER)
 Bandgap Energy

Relationship between
the band gap energy and
Semiconductor
ratio can be obtained
experimentally

Ga1 x Al x As
E g  1.424  1.266 x  0.266 x 2
 Bandgap Energy
The source emission wavelength depends on the bandgap
energy of the device material.

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 Bandgap Energy
For In1–xGaxAsyP1–y compositions that are lattice-
matched to InP, the bandgap in eV varies as

y  2.2 x 0  x  0.47

Bandgap wavelengths from 920 to 1650 nm are

covered by this material system.

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Surface and Edge Emitting LED

Generally an LED is a broadband light source

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 Quantum Efficiency
Internal quantum efficiency is the ratio
between the radiative recombination rate and
the sum of radiative and non-radiative
recombination rates
int  Rr /( Rr  Rnr )
For exponential decay of excess carriers, the
radiative recombination lifetime is n/Rr and
the non-radiative recombination lifetime is
n/Rnr
 Internal Quantum Efficiency
If the current injected into the LED is I, then
the total number of recombination per second
is,
Rr+Rnr = I/q where, q is the charge of an
electron. That is, Rr = intI/q.
Since Rr is the total number of photons
generated per second, the optical power
generated internal to the LED depends on the
internal quantum efficiency
 External Efficiency

 Not all the light internally generated exits the

LED
 The actual light output depends on the
optical properties of the active region and
surrounding material as well as incident
angle of light
 Fresnel Reflection
 If the refractive index n of the medium separating the source
and the fiber end is different from the core index n1, then, for
perpendicular fiber end faces, the power coupled into the fiber
reduces by the factor
2
 n1  n2  4n1n2
R    T
 n1  n2  (n1  n2 ) 2

• R is the Fresnel reflection or the reflectivity at the fiber-core

end face; T is the transmissivity (R+T = 1)
• The reflection coefficient r = (n1 - n)/(n1 + n) relates the
amplitudes of the incident and reflected wave.
 Fresnel Reflection Example

In general At the surface of any two material with n1

and n2 ref indices, there will be Fresnel Loss
Fresnel Loss = -10 Log (T)
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 External Efficiency
n2

n1
Light
emission
cone

External Efficiency for air Optical Power Emitted

n2=1, n1 = n
1.24
 ext  1 P0  intext I
n(n  1) 2  ( m)
 Modulation of an LED
 The response time of an optical source determines how fast
an electrical input drive signal can vary the light output
level
 If the drive current is modulated at a frequency ω and P0 is
the power emitted at zero modulation frequency, the optical
output power of the device will vary as

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 3-dB bandwidths
P( f )  Po / 1  (2f ) 2

Optical Power  I(f); Electrical Power  I2(f)

Electrical Loss = 2 x Optical Loss

 Electrical and Optical Bandwidths
Electrical signal (photocurrent)

Fiber 1
0.707

Sinusoidal signal f
1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz
Emitter Photodetector fel
t Sinusoidal electrical signal
Optical Optical
f = Modulation frequency Input Output
Pi = Input light power Po = Output light power Po / Pi
0.1
0.05
t t f
0 0 1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz
fop
An optical fiber link for transmitting analog signals and the effect of dispersion in the
fiber on the bandwidth, fop.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Drawbacks of LED
 Large line width (30-40 nm)
 Large beam width (Low coupling to the fiber)
 Low output power
 Low E/O conversion efficiency
Advantages
 Robust
 Linear
Half Power Beam Width (θ1/2)

 The angle at
which the power
is half of its peak
value
B(1/ 2 )  Bo /2
 L = 1 For
Lambertian
source
B( )  Bo Cos L ( )
 Source-to-Fiber Power Launching
• Assume a surface-emitting LED of radius rs less than the fiber-core radius a.
• The total optical power Ps emitted from the source of area As into a
hemisphere (2π sr) is given by

In terms of Ps the optical

power coupled into a step-
index fiber from the LED is

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 Source-to-Fiber Power Coupling
Comparison of the optical powers coupled into two step-index fibers

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 Power Coupling to Graded-Index
Fibers
 For a graded-index fiber, the numerical aperture depends
on the distance r from the fiber axis.
 The power coupled from a surface-emitting LED into a
graded-index fiber is (for rs < a)

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 Lenses for Coupling Improvement
If the source emitting area is smaller than the core area, a
miniature lens can improve the power-coupling efficiency.

Efficient
lensing
method

Requires
more precise
alignment

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 Fiber-to-Fiber Joints
 Different modal distributions of the optical beam emerging
from a fiber result in different degrees of coupling loss.

All modes in the

emitting fiber are
equally excited.
Achieving a steady-state
in the receiving fiber
results in an additional
loss.

A steady-state modal
equilibrium has been
established in the emitting
fiber.

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 Mechanical Misalignment
 For a receiving fiber to accept all the optical power emitted
by the first fiber, there must be perfect mechanical
alignment between the two fibers, and their geometric and
waveguide characteristics must match precisely.
 Mechanical alignment is a major problem in joining fibers.

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 Axial Displacement
 Axial or lateral displacement results when the axes of the two fibers are
separated by a distance d.
 This misalignment is the most common and has the greatest power
loss.
 For the step-index fiber, the coupling efficiency is simply the ratio of
the common-core area to the core end-face area:

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 Angular Misalignment
• When two fiber ends are separated longitudinally by a gap
s, not all the higher-mode optical power emitted in the ring
of width x will be intercepted by the receiving fiber.
• The loss for an offset joint between two identical step-index
fibers is

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 Angular Misalignment
Example
Example 5.9: Two identical step-index fibers each have a 25-
μm core radius and an acceptance angle of 14°. Assume the
two fibers are perfectly aligned axially and angularly.
What is the insertion loss for a longitudinal separation of
0.025 mm?
Solution: We can find the insertion loss due to a gap between
fibers by using Eq. (5.33). For a 0.025-mm = 25- μm gap
 Fiber-Related Joint Losses (1)
Joint losses can result from core diameter, numerical
aperture, and core refractive-index-profile mismatches.
1. If the fiber radii are not equal but the NAs and the index
profiles are equal, then the coupling loss is

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 Fiber-Related Joint Losses (2)
2. If the fiber NAs are not equal but the radii and
the index profiles are equal, then the coupling
loss is

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 Fiber-Related Joint Losses (3)
3. If the fiber index profiles are not equal but the
NAs and the radii are equal, then the coupling
loss is

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 Optical Fiber Connectors
Principal requirements of a good connectors:
1. Low coupling losses. The connector assembly must maintain stringent alignment
tolerances to assure low mating losses. These low losses must not change
significantly during operation or after numerous connects and disconnects.
2. Interchangeability. Connectors of the same type must be compatible from one
manufacturer to another.
3. Ease of assembly. A technician should be able to install the connector easily in a
field environment. The connector loss should also be fairly insensitive to the
assembly skill of the technician.
4. Low environmental sensitivity. Conditions such as temperature, dust, and moisture
should have a small effect on connector-loss variations.
5. Low cost and reliable construction. The connector must have a precision suitable to
the application, but its cost must not be a major factor in the fiber system.
6. Ease of connection. One should be able to mate the connector by hand

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Optical Fiber Connector Types (1)

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Optical Fiber Connector Types (2)

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