Advanced Welding Processes

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Advanced Welding Processes

By Hamid Taghipour Armaki
1
Contents
Chapter 1 : Introduction in Welding Processes
Chapter 2 : Advanced Process development trends
Chapter 3 : Ceramic to Metal Bonding Processes
Chapter 4 : High-energy density processes
Chapter 5 : Newest Welding Processes
2
Chapter 1
Introduction in
Welding Processes
3
Introduction
 Welding and joining are essential for the manufacture of a range of

engineering components, which may vary from very large structures such
as ships and bridges, to very complex structures such as aircraft engines
or miniature components for micro-electronic applications.
 The basic joining processes may be subdivided into:

 mechanical joining;
 adhesive bonding;
 brazing and soldering;
 welding
This chapter will introduce some of the basic concepts which need to be
considered and highlight some of the features of traditional welding
methods.
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Classification of welding processes
 Several alternative definitions are used to describe a weld, for

example:
 A union between two pieces of metal rendered plastic or liquid by heat or

pressure or both. A filler metal with a melting temperature of the same
order as that of the parent metal may or may not be used
 A localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by

heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or without the
application of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone, with or
without the use of a filler metal.
 Many different processes have been developed, but for simplicity these
maybe classified in two groups; namely ‘fusion’ and ‘pressure’ welding as
shown in Fig. 1.1, which summarizes some of the key processes.
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Classification of welding processes
6
Welding with pressure
 Resistance welding
Mechanism :
The resistance welding processes are commonly classified as pressure
welding processes although they involve fusion at the interface of the
material being joined. Resistance spot, seam and projection welding rely on a
similar mechanism.
Note : Use High Current
10000 A
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 Features of the basic resistance welding process include:
 the process requires relatively simple equipment;

 it is easily and normally automated;
 once the welding parameters are established it should be possible to
produce repeatable welds for relatively long production runs.
Note : The major applications of the process have been in the joining of sheet
steel in the automotive and white-goods manufacturing industries.
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 Cold pressure welding

Mechanism : If sufficient pressure is applied to the cleaned mating surfaces
to cause substantial plastic deformation, the surface layers of the material are
disrupted, metallic bonds form across the interface and a cold pressure weld
is formed.
 The main characteristics of cold pressure welding are:
 the simplicity and low cost of the equipment;
 the avoidance of thermal damage to the material;
 it is most suitable for low-strength (soft) materials.
Note 1: The pressure and deformation may be applied by rolling, indentation,
butt welding, drawing or shear welding techniques. In general, the more
ductile materials are more easily welded.
Note 2 : This process has been used for electrical connections between small
diameter copper and aluminium conductors using butt and indentation
techniques. Roll bonding is used to produce bimetallic sheets such as Cu/Al
for cooking utensils, Al/Zn for printing plates and precious-metal contact
springs for electrical applications.
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 Friction welding
Mechanism : In friction welding, a high temperature is developed at the joint
by the relative motion of the contact surfaces. When the surfaces are softened,
a forging pressure is applied and the relative motion is stopped. Material is
extruded from the joint to form an upset.
The process may be divided into several operating modes in terms of the
means of supplying the energy:
Continuous drive: in which the relative motion is generated by direct
coupling to the energy source.
The drive maintains a constant speed during the heating phase.
Stored energy:
in which the relative motion is supplied by a flywheel which is disconnected
from the drive during the heating phase.
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Features of the process include:

 one-shot process for butt welding sections;
 suitable for dissimilar metals;
 short cycle time;
 most suited to circular sections;
 robust and costly equipment may be required
Note :
The process is commonly applied to circular sections, particularly in steel,
but it may also be applied to dissimilar metal joints such as aluminum to
steel or even ceramic materials to metals.
 Diffusion bonding or diffusion welding

Mechanism : In diffusion bonding the mating surfaces are cleaned and heated
in an inert atmosphere. Pressure is applied to the joint and local plastic
deformation is followed by diffusion during which the surface voids are
eliminated.
 it is suitable for joining a wide range of materials;
 it is a one-shot process;
 complex sections may be joined;
 a vacuum or controlled atmosphere is required;
 a prolonged cycle time may be necessary.
Note: The process can, however, be used for the joining of complex structures
which require many simultaneous welds to be made.
 Explosive welding
Mechanism : In explosive welding, the force required to deform the interface
is generated by an explosive charge. In the most common application of the
process, two flat plates are joined to form a bimetallic structure. An explosive
charge is used to force the upper or ‘flier’ plate on to the baseplate in such a
way that a wave of plastic material at the interface is extruded forward as the
plates join.
Note : For large workpieces, considerable force is involved and care

is required to ensure the safe operation of the process.

 it offers a short welding time;
 it is suitable for joining large surface areas;
 it is suitable for dissimilar thickness and metals joining;
 careful preparation is required for large workpieces;
 safety is an issue.
Note : The process may also be applied for welding heat exchanger tubes to
tube plates or for plugging redundant or damaged tubes
 Magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB) welding
Mechanism : In MIAB welding a magnetic field generated by an electromagnet

is used to move an arc across the joint surfaces before the application of
pressure.
Note : Although the process produces a weld similar to that of friction
welding, it is possible to achieve shorter cycle times and relative motion of
the parts to be joined is avoided.
Features of the process are:

 it is suitable for butt welding complex sections;
 it offers a shorter cycle time than friction welding.
Note : The process has been applied fairly widely in the automotive industry
for the fabrication of axle cases and shock absorber housings in tube
diameters from 10 to 300 mm and thicknesses from 0.7 to 13 mm. It is also
being developed for transmission pipeline welding, particularly for small
diameter thin wall pipe.
Fusion welding
 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Mechanism : In the gas tungsten arc welding process [also known as tungsten
inert gas (TIG) in most of Europe, WIG (wolfram inert gas) in Germany, and
still referred to by the original trade names Argon arc or Helium arc welding
in some countries], the heat generated by an arc which is maintained between
the workpiece and a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used to fuse the
joint area.
Note : The arc is sustained in an inert gas which serves to protect the weld
pool and the electrode from atmospheric contamination
Fusion welding
The process has the following features:

 it is conducted in a chemically inert atmosphere;
 the arc energy density is relatively high;
 the process is very controllable;
 joint quality is usually high;
 deposition rates and joint completion rates are low
Application Note : The process may be applied to the joining of a wide range
of engineering materials, including stainless steel, aluminium alloys and
reactive metals such as titanium. These features of the process lead to its
widespread application in the aerospace, nuclear111 reprocessing and power
generation industries as well as in the fabrication of chemical process plant,
food processing and brewing equipment.
Fusion welding
 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Fusion welding
 Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Mechanism : Submerged arc welding is a consumable electrode arc welding

process in which the arc is shielded by a molten slag and the arc atmosphere
is generated by decomposition of certain slag constituents
Fusion welding
Note : The filler materials a continuously fed wire and very high melting and
deposition rates are achieved by using high currents (e.g. 1000 A) with
relatively small-diameter wires (e.g. 4 mm).
The significant features of the process are:

 high deposition rates;
 automatic operation;
 no visible arc radiation;
 flexible range of flux/wire combinations;
 difficult to use positionally;
 normally used for thicknesses above 6 mm.
Note : The main applications of submerged arc welding are on thick section
plain carbon and low-alloy steels and it has been used on power generation
plant, nuclear containment, heavy structural steelwork, offshore structures
and shipbuilding.
Fusion welding
 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Mechanism : In gas metal arc welding [also known as metal inert gas (MIG)
or metal active gas (MAG) welding in Europe; the terms semi-automatic or
CO2 welding are sometimes used but are less acceptable] the heat generated
by an electric arc is used to fuse the joint area. The arc is formed between the
tip of a consumable, continuously fed filler wire and the workpiece, and the
entire arc area is shielded by an inert gas.
Some of the more important features of the process are summarized
below:
 low heat input (compared with SMAW and SAW);
 continuous operation;
 high deposition rate;
 no heavy slag – reduced post-weld cleaning;
 low hydrogen – reduces risk of cold cracking.
Fusion welding
 Electron beam welding
Mechanism : A beam of electrons may be accelerated by a high voltage to

provide a high energy heat source for welding.
Note : The power density of electron beams is high (1010 – 1010 W/m) and
keyhole welding is the normal operating mode. The problem of power
dissipation when the electrons collide with atmospheric gas molecules is
usually overcome by carrying out the welding operation in a vacuum.
 very high energy density;
 confined heat source;
 high depth-to-width ratio of welds;
 normally requires a vacuum;
 high equipment cost.
Note : Applications of electron beam welding have traditionally included
welding of aerospace engine components and instrumentation.
Fusion welding
 Laser Welding
Mechanism : The laser may be used as an alternative heat source for fusion
welding. The focused power density of the laser can reach 1010 or 1012 W/m
and welding is often carried out using the ‘keyhole’ technique.
Significant features of laser welding are:
 very confined heat source at low power;
 deep penetration at high power;
 reduced distortion and thermal damage;
 out-of-vacuum technique;
 high equipment cost.
Note : These features have led to the application of lasers for microjoining of
electronic components, but the process is also being applied to the fabrication
of automotive components and precision machine tool parts in heavy section
steel.
Appendix 1
Question 1 : What's your idea about difference in fusion welding and welding with
pressure processes?
Question 2 : What's the problem in joining of dissimilar material by the fusion
welding?
Difference in melting temperature
Difference in thermal expansion
Difference in thermal conduction
Non – solubility
Wetting
Appendix 2
Note : Significant features of welding with pressure.
joining of dissimilar materials /

ceramic to metal
Reduce in residual stress/ Like FSW,

FRW, DW..
Low HAZ/ Like FRW….
Cladding and composite / Like FSW
Chapter 2
Advanced Process
development trends
27
Introduction
The incentives for welding process development
Primary Secondary
Improve total Cost the requirement

effectiveness for new processes
Introduction
 Cost effectiveness
Note : The cost of labour in many traditional welding processes is mostly 70

to 80% of the total
Introduction
 Cost effectiveness
Note : In the past, it seems to have been assumed that the cost effectiveness of
welding processes was totally dependent on deposition rate.
Introduction
Cost effectiveness
General
Higher the Shorter the Lower the

deposition rate weld time labour cost
Introduction
Note & Question : Deposition rate may, however, give a misleading indication of
cost effectiveness if, for example, quality is sacrificed and higher repair rates are
required.
Answer : Deposition rate is also an inappropriate way of describing ‘single shot’
high joint-completion rate autogenous processes such as explosive welding and
laser welding.
For a more complete assessment of cost effectiveness, it is clear that the

following additional factors should be considered:
 control of joint quality;
 joint design;
 operating efficiency;
 equipment and consumable cost
Chapter 3
Ceramic to Metal
Bonding Processes
33
Introduction
In crystalline form, ceramics are generally considered to be the inorganic

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Introduction
Why Ceramic-Metal
Joints?
Using ceramic for its Using ceramic for its

unique properties unique properties
Problem
Problem Frangibility and high

Produced complex
components tenacity
Solution
Solution
Ceramic-Metal joining Ceramic-Metal joining
Problem in Ceramic-Metal bonding
General Problem
Bond diversity Limitation Fusion-Weld
Note : Ionic bonds and covalent bonds are characteristic atomic bond
configurations of ceramic materials. The peripheral electrons are extremely
stable. Using the general joining method of fusion welding to join ceramics
with metals is almost impossible, and the molten metal does not generally
wet on ceramic surfaces. When joining ceramics to metals with the brazing
method, metallization on the ceramic surface is necessary with general
inactive brazing filler metal or the use of active brazing alloys in order to get
a reliable joint.
General Problem
Tm diversity Limitation Fusion
Note : Ceramics have high melting points, high strength (in compression)
and a high hardness value. Direct diffusion bonding of ceramics is very
difficult, requiring the finished surface to be extremely smooth and clean,
the bonding temperature high and a long bonding time. For example, when
joining Si3N4 ceramic directly by diffusion bonding, the finish of the ceramic
surface should be more than 0.1 µm and bonding temperature should be
1500~1750 °C. Therefore, joining ceramics by diffusion bonding is normally
indirect, using soft, ductile metals as an interlayer which can decrease the
bonding temperature considerably and the plastic deformation of interlayer
metals can lower the requirements of processing the joining surface of the
ceramic.
General Problem
∝ diversity R-Stress Crack
Note : The thermal expansion coefficients of ceramics are generally much

lower than metals. Stress will be generated in the ceramic/metal joint due to
the thermal expansion mismatch and will degrade the mechanical properties
of joint and can cause joint cracking immediately after the joining process.
The thermal stress in the joint due to the thermal expansion mismatch
should be carefully considered when joining ceramic with metal.
General Problem
𝑻𝒉 − 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 Low Limitation-FW
Note : Many ceramics have low thermal conductivity and susceptibility to

thermal shock. Using the fusion welding method to join ceramics by
concentration heating or with a high energy density heat source, cracking in
the ceramic easily occurs. It is necessary to reduce the temperature gradient
in and around the fusion zone as much as possible and to carefully control
the heating and cooling speed during the joining process.
General Problem
𝑬 − 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 Weak Limitation -EW
Note : Most ceramics have weak or no electrical conductivity. It is hard to join

ceramics by using electrical welding methods unless special techniques used.
General Problem
𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 DW Problem
Metal
With interlayer Ceramic
Metallurgical Problem
𝑾𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
 sv   sl   lv cos 
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉  sl
𝑹𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒍
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ∶ 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔
Mismatch of the physical and mechanical

properties
Note : Another difficulty in joining ceramic to metal is the difference of

thermal expansion coefficients between them. The thermal expansion
coefficient of ceramics is generally around 10-6k-1 for instance, the thermal
expansion coefficient of Si3N4 ceramic is near 3* 10-6k-1, while the average
thermal expansion coefficient of common metals such as carbon steel or
stainless steel is about 14-18 10-6k-1. Such mismatch of thermal expansion
coefficients leads to residual stresses in the joints after cooling to room
temperature from the joining temperature, the joint performance is thereby
affected.
The residual stresses produced in the ceramic metal joint could be estimated
according to following equation for fully elastic conditions :
If the thermal stresses in the metal exceed its yield strength, the residual stresses in the
joint could be determined by equation :
For reduce in the residual stress
Using soft filler metals
Soft filler metals have low yield strength and

could release the residual stress.
Using soft interlayer
Residual stress could be reduced by the elastic and

plastic deformation of an interlayer, e.g. when using Al or Cu as interlayer,
the residual stress is decreased.
For reducing the residual stress
Using hard metals of which the thermal expansion coefficient is close to

ceramics as the interlayer.
Using hard metals such as W, Mo or Invar as

the interlayer, could reduce the residual stress
Using composite
interlayer
Composite interlayers often constitute hard

metals and soft metals, like Cu/Mo-Cu/Nb, have a noticeable effect on
reducing residual stress, with a combination of merits of those two kinds
of metals.
Joining under low

temperature
Joining ceramic to metal at a low

temperature is good for reducing the joint deformation and effectively
decreasing the residual stresses.
Heat treatment after

joining
Proper heat treatment post-joining sometimes

releases the stress and the strength will vary based on the heat treatment.
Optimized design of
joint configuration
Appropriate configuration of
the joint could decrease the stress concentration extent and reduce the
residual stress.
Note : There are many ways to make ceramic-metal joints, such as mechanical
bonding, electrostatic bonding, hot isostatic pressing bonding, brazing and
diffusion bonding. Each method has its own features and specific applications.
Among them, brazing and diffusion bonding are the most commonly used
methods, for the high reliability and good repeatability characteristics of
joints.
Classification of ceramic-metal bonding
Chemical Mechanical
Solid Solid-Liquid Liquid
Diffusion TLP Microwave
Ultrasonic PTLP Laser
Sintering Eutectic
Brazing
FRW
Sintering
Electrostatic
Adhesive
Ceramics to Metal processes
Brazing ceramics to
metal
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕
Direct brazing : uses filler metal containing active elements, oxides, fluorides
or solder to join ceramic and metal.
Indirect brazing : is used first to achieve ceramic surface metallization, then

conventional brazing filler metals are used to join them.
Indirect Brazing Process
Metallization of ceramic
surface
𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌 − 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎 at low or high

𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 temperature
𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒎 such as

𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 Ti/Pd/Au
𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 such as plating Ni
𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐 − 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅,
?
𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
?
𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Thick-film metallization
Note 1: it is a method of producing a metal layer for sealing, conduction and

resistance to the ceramic substrates by screen printing, forming the layer for
brazing, electric circuits and connection points.
Note 2: Thick film slurries are generally made by mixing and milling the metal
powders at a size of 1.5 microns, adding a percentage of permanent adhesive,
organic solvents, thickeners and surfactant, etc.
Note 3: Metal slurries used for thick-film could be Cu, Ag and Au. Adhesives are
Usually Si2O3-B2O3-ZnO, Si2O3-B2O3-BaO-Al2O3(for
the AlN ceramic thick-film metallization).
Note 4: The sintering atmosphere for Cu slurry is nitrogen, with a sintering

temperature of 850 °C. For Ag slurry in the air, the sintering temperature is
920 °C, For Au slurry also in air, the sintering temperature is 850 °C.
Thin-film metallization
Note: Thin-film metallization, by using PVD methods like sputtering or

evaporation, is used to produce a ceramic surface coated with thin metal
films, such as NiCr/Pd/Au, Ti/Pd/Au, Ti, Ti/Ag, Ti/Ni, etc.
Direct Copper Bonding
Note: The DCB technique is based on the presence of an eutectic between

copper and Cu2O which wets alumina.
direct Brazing Process
Vacuum brazing with active

filler metals (direct)
Note: The chemical bonds of ceramic materials are mainly ionic bonds and covalent
bonds, which means ceramics are very stable in chemical reactions. Filler metals with
metallic bonds can wet ceramic surfaces when chemical reactions occur between filler
metal and ceramic.
𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐡 𝐚𝐬 𝐓𝐢, 𝐙𝐫, 𝐇𝐟, 𝐍𝐛, 𝐓𝐚, 𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐝 𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞
𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜, 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐠
𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐥𝐚𝐲𝐞𝐫.
Vacuum brazing with

active filler metals
Note 1: In active brazing alloys (filler metals) Ti is usually used as the active
element. Among the commercial filler metals, such as Ag-base, Cu-base or Ag-
Cu eutectic filler metal, the content of Ti is 1~5wt%.
Note 2: Sometimes an amount of In is added to the brazing alloys to improve

the fluidity and increase the activity of active elements.
Note 3: Besides Ag-base and Cu-base filler metal, there are some other active
brazing alloys based on Sn or Pb, their melting point below 300 °C. The
working temperature of the ceramic-metal joint bonded with Ag-base or Cu-
base brazing alloys are generally not above 400 °C, however, with high
melting temperature and noble metals such as Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Au, that could
reach to about 800 °C.
Vacuum brazing with

active filler metals
Note 1: In active brazing, the protection of active elements is very important.

These active elements are easily oxidized and if that were to occur they would
be unable to react with ceramics. Active brazing is usually carried out in a
vacuum or an inert atmosphere. In vacuum brazing the vacuum under brazing
temperature is usually better than 10-4 mbar.`
Brazing Process
The factors that may influence the

brazed joint quality :
the properties of ceramic and metal

(including the interlayer metal)
the brazing alloy system
the amount of brazing filler metal used
the active
element type and its content
the surface structure, atmosphere, brazing

temperature and holding time
Brazing Process
Note : When ceramics have high fracture toughness, the corresponding joint
has high tension strength. The properties and thickness of the interlayer
metal have a great influence on the joint strength. Soft and easily yielding
interlayer metals favor releasing the stress generated in the joint because of
the mismatched heat expansion behavior of ceramics and metals, the joint
performance can be improved when the thickness of the interlayer metal is
correct
Brazing Process
Note : The content of active elements in filler metals affects the joint strength
by its influence on the interface reaction and the microstructures of the
brazing seam.
Brazing Process
Note : There are favorable ranges of brazing temperature and holding time for
the joint strength.
Brazing Process
Note 1 : Brazing temperature (usually above the liquidus temperature about

50~100 °C) and bonding time are key parameters for joint quality. The
temperature of brazing ceramics to metals is usually between 800 °C and
1100 °C. Sn base or Pb-base filler metal with low melting points should also
be brazed at high temperature to achieve sufficient thermodynamic activity
to make chemical reactions.
Note 2 : ZrO2, Al2O3, Si3N4, SiC and AlN are widely used in applications.
Commercial filler metals based Ag, Cu or eutectic Ag-Cu could wet those
ceramics and aid in joining them reliably.
Ceramic-Metal Bonding Processes
Vacuum diffusion
bonding
Note : The solid state diffusion bonding technique was originally used to join
dissimilar materials. It is now one of the general methods used to join
ceramics, with direct bonding or with an interlayer.
Advantages: Compared with fusion welding, the advantages of solid state

diffusion bonding include high joint strength, small shrinkage and
deformation, accurate dimension control and good fit for joining dissimilar
materials. Why?
Answer:
Disadvantages:
Because The
bonding
disadvantages
is usually carried
of diffusion
out in abonding
vacuum atmosphere
are expensive
at
high
equipment,
temperature
high production
and with a costs
long bonding
and limited
time.
sample dimension.
Vacuum diffusion bonding
Principles
1st stage deformation

asperities come
1st stage into contact.
and interfacial boundary
formation
 deformation forming
interfacial boundary.
2nd stage
 Grain boundary
migration and pore 2nd stage grain 3rd stage volume
boundary migration diffusion pore
elimination. and pore elimination elimination
3rd stage
 Volume diffusion and
pore elimination.
The factors influencing

diffusion bonding
Bonding temperature
Holding time
Pressure applied
Atmosphere
Surface structure
Similarity of physical
Chemical reactions properties
Effect of bonding
temperature
Note 1 : Temperature is the most important parameter in diffusion bonding.

The temperature of solid state diffusion bonding ceramics to metals generally
needs to be over 90% of the melting point of the metal.
where k0 is a constant, n is the exponential of time, Q is the activation energy,

related to the diffusion mechanism and R is the gas constant.
Note 2 : In solid state diffusion bonding, the inter diffusion of elements allows
chemical reactions to occur and form sufficient interface combination. The
formation of the reaction layer and its thickness affects the joint strength
remarkably. The thickness of the reaction layer could be estimated according
to equation:
Effect of bonding
temperature
Note 1 : The influence of bonding temperature on joint strength has the same
tendency with reaction layer thickness. According to the experimental results
of tension strength tests, the influence of bonding temperature on joint
strength could be expressed by equation :
Where B0 is a constant (MPa), Q app is the appearance activation energy, the

Note 3
2 :: Joint strength
According mayequation,
to the decrease the
withincrease
higher temperature, because
of temperature favors the
an
sum of various activation energy.
residual
increase stress
in the will
jointalso increase and reduce the joint strength.
strength.
Effect of bonding
temperature
Note 1 : Moreover, increasing the temperature may result in a change in

ceramic performance or cause the brittle phase to occur and the joint to fail.
In addition to these factors, the strength of ceramic-metal joints is also
related to the melting point of the metal. Among ceramic-metal joints, the
joint strength increases linearly with increasing of melting point of metals
Effect of holding time
Note 1 : The holding time not only affects the thickness of the reaction layer,
but it also affects the interface reaction products. The effect of time on the
thickness of reaction layer (X) could be approximately shown by
X = k (Dt)1/2
(k is a constant and D is the diffusion coefficient). It can be seen that

increasing time will make the reaction layer grow.
Note 2 : In general, the relation between bonding time (t) and tension
strength is
BS = B0×t1/2
, where B0 is constant.
Effect of holding time
Example: Bonding SiC to SUS304 with Nb as the interlayer metal , the phase
NbSi2 that has low strength and a large heat expansion coefficient compared
with SiC occurred and made the joint shear strength decrease after the long
bonding time.
Effect of pressure
Note 1 : Pressure applied in the solid phase diffusion bonding process creates
plastic deformation, which could reduce the size of surface asperities and
provide oxide breakdown, increasing the surface contact area, to offer the
best condition for the diffusion of atoms. For preventing the macroscopic
deformation of components, the bonding pressure is usually within the range
of 0~100 MPa, while under that pressure sufficient deformation cannot be
created.
Note 1 : As well as the bonding temperature and bond time, there also exists
an optimum pressure range for joint strength. The best pressures for bonding
Al to Si3N4 and Ni to Al2O3 are 4 MPa and 15–20 MPa respectively. Other
factors, like the bonding material type and the surface oxide thickness, will
change the effect of pressure on joint strength.
Effect of chemical
reactions
Note : Generally, when joining ceramic to metal with solid diffusion bonding
either directly or using a metal interlayer, compounds will be formed at the
interface between ceramic and metal. Reaction compounds change with the
diffusion bonding conditions, resulting in a variation of joint performance.
Effect of bonding
atmosphere
Note 1 : Usually, the joint strength bonded in a vacuum is higher than that
in an argon atmosphere or in air. In the bonding of Si3N4 using aluminum,
the strength in the vacuum is highest. The fracture locates both in the Al
layer and the ceramic. The fracture in the Al layer is plastic and in the
ceramic it is brittle. While bonding in air, the fracture occurs at the
interface between Al and Si3N4 because of the oxidation of Al. Although the
pressure could break down the surface oxidizing film, the new oxidizing
film forms continuously when the partial pressure of oxygen in the
atmosphere is higher. joint
Note 2 : If diffusion bonding of ceramic Si3N4 is conducted at high

temperature (1500 °C), the ceramic Si3N4 will decompose forming cavities.
When bonding in an N2 atmosphere, the decomposition will be limited. The
higher N2 pressure is favorable to joint strength. The flexural strength of
the joint bonded in 1 MPa N2is higher by one-third than that in 0.1 MPa N2.
Effect of surface state
Note : The joint strength may be significantly influenced by the roughness of

the faying surfaces. High surface roughness may introduce high local stress
concentrations with subsequent initiation of brittle fracture. The effect of the
surface roughness on the joint strength can be seen in Figure for Si3N4-Al
joints. Joint strength decreases from 470 MPa to 270 MPa when the surface
roughness value varies from 0.1 µm to 0.3 µm.
Effect of interlayer
Note 1 :The use of interlayer in diffusion bonding is required for many

applications in order to reduce the bonding temperature, bonding pressure
and bonding time, to enhance diffusion, to eliminate impurity elements, and
to reduce the residual stresses generated at the bond interface if the
interlayer is ductile. When bonding stainless steel to alumina, the lower
residual stress caused by the interlayer.
The interlayer can be in the form of a powder, foil or metallization film.
Ceramic-Metal joint strength
Test
Ceramic-Metal Applications
Applications
Ceramic-Metal Processes
Comparing
Chapter 4
High-energy density
processes
79
Introduction
High-Energy Density
Processes
High-current plasma
Electron beam Engineering materials
Laser welding
Note : The power density of these processes is significantly higher than that of
the common arc welding processes and normally above 10 9W m–2.
Introduction
Mechanism
Note 1 : As a consequence of the high energy concentration, the mechanism

of weld pool formation is somewhat different from that normally found in
other fusion welding processes. The material in the joint area is heated to
very high temperatures and may vaporize, a deep crater or hole is formed
immediately under the heat source and a reservoir of molten metal is
produced behind this keyhole’. As the heat source moves forward the hole is
filled with molten metal from the reservoir and this solidifies to form the
weld bead. The technique has been called keyhole welding.
Introduction
The features of High-

Energy Density
they are normally only applied to butt welding situations
they require a closed square butt preparation with good fit-up
the weld bead cross sections have high depth to width ratios
Note : The mechanism of keyhole welding is illustrated in Fig. 8.2. Very stable
operating conditions and, in particular, travel speed, are required to maintain
a balance between the keyhole-generating forces (gas velocity, vapour
they allow full penetration of a joint to be achieved from one side
pressure and recoil pressure) and the forces tending to close the keyhole
(surface tension and gravitational). The need for consistent travel speed as
well as safety considerations dictate the requirement to operate these
they can be used to limit distortion and thermal damage
processes automatically.
Plasma keyhole welding
Introduction
Note 1 : PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW) can be defined as a gas-shielded arc

welding process where the coalescence of metals is achieved via the heat
transferred by an arc that is created between a tungsten electrode and
a workpiece. The Welding Cutting
arc is constricted by a copper alloy nozzle orifice to
form a highlyHigh Energyarc column. The plasmaLow
collimated Energythrough the
is formed
ionization of a portion
High of the plasma (orifice)Low
Penetration gas.Penetration
The process can be
operated with or without a filler wire addition.
Note : The exact current where the keyhole mode is initiated will depend on
the torch geometry and the joint material and thickness, but currents of over
200 A and plasma gas flows of 3 to 4 1 min–1 are typical with a 2 to 3 mm
diameter constricting orifice. The thermal efficiency of the process is high
and it has been estimated that the heat transferred to the workpiece from a
10 kW plasma arc can be as high as 66% of the total process power.
Control of plasma
keyhole welding
Current
Note 1: With high currents, very high arc forces are generated and undercut or
humping may occur. The current must, however, be controlled in conjunction
with welding speed to produce the required bead profile.
Plasma gas flow rate
Note 2: At high currents, it is therefore necessary to maintain the plasma gas

flow rate at a reasonably high level, but the upper limit will be determined by
the occurrence of undercut and decreased thermal efficiency.
Welding speed
Note 1: If the speed is too high undercutting and incomplete penetration will
result, whereas at low speeds the keyhole size may become excessive and the
weld pool will collapse.
Note 2: The operating range of the process is therefore determined by a

combination of mean current, welding speed and plasma gas flow.
Orifice diameter
Note 1: Decreasing the orifice size increases the arc force and voltage. For
keyhole welding small, 2–3 mm diameter, orifices are normally used.
Electrode geometry
Note 2: The electrode geometry and its position within the torch are critical
due to their effect on gas flow within the torch. It is suggested [149] that
tolerances of 0.1 to 0.2 mm on electrode position are required. Concentricity
of the electrode is also important, since any misalignment may result in
asymmetrical arc behaviour and poor weld bead appearance; the electrode
should either be adjustable or fixed by a ceramic insert inside the
torch.
Multiport nozzles
Note 1: The multiport nozzle may be used to enhance constriction and

produce an elliptical arc profile which is elongated along the axis of the weld.
Recent work [150] has shown that a second concentric nozzle may also be
used to provide an increase in arc pressure, although excessive focusing gas
flow rates may reduce the thermal efficiency of the process.
Note 3: The effect

Shielding of these small additions of hydrogen is quite significant,
gases
giving improved weld bead cleanliness, higher travel speeds and improved
constriction of the arc. Helium may be used as a shielding medium for high-
conductivity materials such as copper and aluminium. It will tend to increase
Note 2: The
the total most
heat inputcommon
althoughshielding and plasma
it may reduce gas is
the effect of argon. From 1 toand
the constriction 5%
hydrogen
produce amay bediffuse
more added to thesource.
heat argon shielding
With 30%gas for weldingargon
helium/70% low-carbon and
shielding
austenitic stainless
gas mixtures, steels.
keyhole welding speeds 66% higher than those achieved with
argon shielding have been reported for aluminium.
Arc characteristics
Note 1: Constriction of any arc causes an increase in arc voltage. In the plasma
process, increasing the plasma gas flow, decreasing the diameter of the
constriction, increasing current and adding hydrogen or helium to the gas will
all increase the arc voltage.
Reverse polarity plasma
Note 1: The plasma process is normally operated with the electrode negative
(DCEN) and the workpiece positive. This polarity may be reversed to allow
cathodic cleaning to occur when welding aluminium alloys. It is usually
necessary to increase the electrode size and limit the maximum current due
to the additional heating effect within the torch, but helium shielding gas
may be used to extend the thickness range weldable in the keyhole mode up
to 8 mm.
Pulsed keyhole plasma
Note 2: Pulsed operation improves the resistance to undercut and generally

produces a wider, flatter bead.
Applications
Carbon–manganese ferritic steel: The plasma keyhole welding of carbon–

manganese steels has recently been evaluated for circumferential root runs
in pipes for power generation and offshore applications. The use of the
process enables thick root sections (6–8 mm) to be welded in a single pass
from one side and significantly improves productivity. Pulsed plasma keyhole
has been used for these studies [154] to improve operating tolerance and
positional performance.
Applications
Austenitic stainless steel: Austenitic stainless steel may be readily welded

using the keyhole technique and the process has been applied to the
longitudinal welding of pipe as well as the fabrication of components for
cryogenic service. Welding speeds of around 1.0 m min–1 are achievable with
keyhole welds in material up to 2.7 mm thick, whilst welds in 6.0 mm thick
material may be made at 0.35 m min–1 . The use of hydrogen additions to the
shielding gas or proprietary mixtures containing from 1 to 5% hydrogen
provide improved bead appearance and increased travel speed. Undercut
may be limited by careful control of welding parameters, but, if this is not
possible, pulsed operation or the use of cosmetic passes is recommended.
Applications
Titanium: Steady and pulsed keyhole plasma welding techniques have

been applied to titanium and its alloys [156, 157] and, providing adequate
provision is made for gas shielding, high-integrity welds may be made. The
shielding requirement may be met by carrying out the welding operation in
a glove-box, which is vacuum purged and backfilled with argon, or using a
trailing shield of the type shown in Fig.
Applications
Note : The major problem experienced with this material is undercut; this
may be alleviated by:
• careful selection of welding parameters on thicknesses up to 3 mm;

• pulsed operation with controlled current decay on each pulse;
• cosmetic runs with plasma or GTAW and filler;
• magnetic arc oscillation along the axis of the weld.
Applications
Aluminium: Plasma keyhole welding of aluminium is possible if electrode

positive polarity is used as discussed above. It is also possible to use
advanced power sources with the capability of variable-polarity operation
and significant improvements in quality and cost have been reported using
these techniques. It has been found that acceptable results are achieved with
15–20 ms of DC electrode negative operation and electrode positive pulses of
2–5 ms duration.
Laser welding
Note 1 : The laser may be used as a welding heat source and consists of a high-
energy coherent beam of light of an essentially constant wavelength.
Note 2 : LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation and the medium in which it is generated may be either solid, liquid
or gaseous.
Helium/neon and CO2

Note 3 : In welding applications, the two most commonly used lasers are the
CO2 gas laser and the Nd:YAG solid state laser. Recent developments include
the availability of high-power diode lasers (HPDL) and fibre lasers suitable for
ruby and neodymium doped yttrium
welding applications.
aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG)
Laser welding
Principle
Laser Beam
Laser welding
Laser Co2
Note 1: The principles of operation of the CO2laser are illustrated in Fig. 8.7.
An electrical discharge within the gas (N2 , He, Co2) is used to stimulate the
emission of radiation.
Note 2 : The initialExcitation

low-level of Co2 molecule
radiation is ‘trapped’ within the laser cavity by
and end.
mirrors placed at either Produce
ThePhoton
internal reflection of the beam causes an
increase in the energy level (amplification). A fraction of the laser beam
generated in this way is allowed to escape from the resonant cavity via a
partially reflective mirror. In the case of the CO2laser, the emergent light
beam has a wavelength of 10.6 µm and is delivered to the workpiece by a
series of mirrors and lenses.
Chapter 5
Newest of Welding
Processes
99
Introduction
Newest of Welding
Processes
MIAB Solid state
MIAF Liquid state
MIAB
The components to be welded are rigidly clamped in the MIAB welding equipment,
leaving a predetermined, small gap between their ends. In the first stage of the process,
a DC arc is struck between the component ends. A static, radial magnetic field causes
this arc to travel at high speed around the joint circumference, heating the component
ends to a high temperature (see Fig). Heating continues for a few seconds then, in the
second stage, the components are brought together under a predetermined forging
pressure (see Fig. 2). Any molten material is expelled from the joint and a solid phase
weld is produced.
Introduction
Newest of Welding
Processes
MIAB
The components do not rotate during the process. No filler material or shielding gas is
used and MIAB welding produces very little fume. Low and medium carbon steel and
low alloy steel are routinely MIAB welded. Production applications include drive shafts,
propeller shafts, beam axles, axle casings, refrigerator condenser tubes, pressure
accumulators and petrol tank filler spouts. Wall thickness from 0.6mm to 10mm and
cross sections up to 2000mm 2 have been successfully MIAB welded at TWI. MIAB
welding studies have included aluminum alloys, stainless steels and titanium alloys.
Introduction
Newest of Welding
Processes
MIAF
Magnetically impelled arc fusion (MIAF) welding is a variation on MIAB (magnetically
impelled arc butt welding) which is widely used to join steel pipes and tubes. In MIAB,
an arc is struck between the two components to be joined, MIAF uses a non-
consumable electrode as an arc initiator. Illustrations A and B show a MIAF set-up for
edge-welding the periphery of a flat, circular component. The component to be
welded is located on a central spigot which is connected to a pulsed arc welding power
supply, similar to that used for micro-TIG welding. The annular electrode completes
the electrical circuit. When the power supply is activated, an arc is struck between a
point on the annular electrode and the edge of the component. The arc is then
propelled around the annular electrode by a series of electro-magnets (see
illustration B) which are switched on and off in a high-speed sequence.
Rotation of the arc continues for a pre-set period until the edge of the component is
fusion welded. No additional filler material is used.
LOGO
By Hamid Taghipour Armaki
10
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Advanced Welding Processes

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Advanced Welding Processes

Chapter 1 : Introduction in Welding Processes

Chapter 2 : Advanced Process development trends

Chapter 3 : Ceramic to Metal Bonding Processes

Chapter 4 : High-energy density processes

Chapter 5 : Newest Welding Processes

 Welding and joining are essential for the manufacture of a range of

 The basic joining processes may be subdivided into:

 Several alternative definitions are used to describe a weld, for

 A union between two pieces of metal rendered plastic or liquid by heat or

 A localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by

 Features of the basic resistance welding process include:

 the process requires relatively simple equipment;

 Cold pressure welding

Features of the process include:

 Diffusion bonding or diffusion welding

Note : For large workpieces, considerable force is involved and care

Features of the process include:

 Magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB) welding

Mechanism : In MIAB welding a magnetic field generated by an electromagnet

Features of the process are:

 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

The process has the following features:

 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

 Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Mechanism : Submerged arc welding is a consumable electrode arc welding

The significant features of the process are:

 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

 Electron beam welding

Mechanism : A beam of electrons may be accelerated by a high voltage to

Difference in melting temperature

Difference in thermal expansion

Difference in thermal conduction

Note : Significant features of welding with pressure.

joining of dissimilar materials /

Reduce in residual stress/ Like FSW,

Low HAZ/ Like FRW….

Cladding and composite / Like FSW

The incentives for welding process development

Improve total Cost the requirement

Note : The cost of labour in many traditional welding processes is mostly 70

Higher the Shorter the Lower the

For a more complete assessment of cost effectiveness, it is clear that the

In crystalline form, ceramics are generally considered to be the inorganic

Using ceramic for its Using ceramic for its

Problem Frangibility and high

Bond diversity Limitation Fusion-Weld

Tm diversity Limitation Fusion

∝ diversity R-Stress Crack

Note : The thermal expansion coefficients of ceramics are generally much

𝑻𝒉 − 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 Low Limitation-FW

Note : Many ceramics have low thermal conductivity and susceptibility to

𝑬 − 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 Weak Limitation -EW

Note : Most ceramics have weak or no electrical conductivity. It is hard to join

With interlayer Ceramic

𝑹𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒍

𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌