DISTRIBUTED DATA SYSTEMS

SSZG554
BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad
Anil Kumar Ghadiyaram
Text Books

T1 : M. Tamer Özsu • Patrick Valduriez Principles

of Distributed Database Systems Third Edition

T2 : Distributed Operating Systems: Concepts And

Design By Pradeep K. Sinha, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd
R1 : Storage Networks Explained– by Ulf Troppens, Wolfgang
Muller-Freidt, Rainer Wolafka, IBM Storage Software
Development, Germany. Publishers: Wiley

Note: In order to broaden understanding of concepts as applied to Indian IT industry, students are
advised to refer books of their choice and case-studies in their own organizations

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 BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

L11 : Data and Access Control - 2

Reference : T1 - Ch. 5

Source Courtesy: Some of the contents of this PPT are sourced from materials provided by Publishers of T1 & T2
 PRESENTATION OVERVIEW

• View Management
• Views in Centralized DBMS
• Views in Distributed DBMSs
• Maintenance of Materialized Views

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 View Management

• One of the main advantages of the relational model is that it provides full logical
data independence.
• External schemas enable user groups to have their particular view of the database.
In a relational system, a view is a virtual relation, defined as the result of a query on
base relations (or real relations), but not materialized like a base relation, which is
stored in the database.

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 View Management

• A view is a dynamic window in the sense that it reflects all updates to the database.
• An external schema can be defined as a set of views and/or base relations.
• Besides their use in external schemas, views are useful for ensuring data security in
a simple way.
• By selecting a subset of the database, views hide some data. If users may only
access the database through views, they cannot see or manipulate the hidden data,
which are therefore secure.

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 View Management

• In a distributed DBMS, a view can be derived from distributed relations, and the
access to a view requires the execution of the distributed query corresponding to
the view definition.
• An important issue in a distributed DBMS is to make view materialization efficient

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• Most relational DBMSs use a view mechanism where a view is a relation derived
from base relations as the result of a relational query
• It is defined by associating the name of the view with the retrieval query that
specifies it.

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

The view of system analysts (SYSAN) derived from relation EMP

(ENO,ENAME,TITLE), can be defined by the following SQL query:

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• The single effect of this statement is the storage of the view definition in the
catalog.
• No other information needs to be recorded.
• Therefore, the result of the query defining the view is not produced.
• However, the view SYSAN can be manipulated as a base relation

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• Find the names of all the system analysts with their project number and
responsibility involving the view SYSAN and relation ASG(ENO,PNO,RESP,DUR) can
be expressed as

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• Mapping a query expressed on views into a query expressed on base relations can
be done by query modification
• With this technique the variables are changed to range on base relations and the
query qualification is merged with the view qualification

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

The preceding query can be modified to

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• The modified query is expressed on base relations and can therefore be processed
by the query processor.
• It is important to note that view processing can be done at compile time.
• The view mechanism can also be used for refining the access controls to include
subsets of objects.
• To specify any user from whom one wants to hide data, the keyword USER generally
refers to the logged-on user identifier

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

The view ESAME restricts the access by any user to those employees having the same
title:

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• If the user who creates ESAME is an electrical engineer, as in this case, the view
represents the set of all electrical engineers

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• Views can be defined using arbitrarily complex relational queries involving

selection, projection, join, aggregate functions, and so on.
• All views can be interrogated as base relations, but not all views can be
manipulated as such.
• Updates through views can be handled automatically only if they can be
propagated correctly to the base relations.
• We can classify views as being updatable and not updatable.

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• A view is updatable only if the updates to the view can be propagated to the base
relations without ambiguity.
• The view SYSAN above is updatable; the insertion, for example, of a new system
analyst h201, Smithi will be mapped into the insertion of a new employee (201,
Smith, Syst. Anal.).
• If attributes other than TITLE were hidden by the view, they would be assigned null
values.

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

The following view, however, is not updatable

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• The deletion, for example, of the tuple hSmith, Analysti cannot be propagated,
since it is ambiguous.
• Deletions of Smith in relation EMP or analyst in relation ASG are both meaningful,
but the system does not know which is correct.
• Current systems are very restrictive about supporting updates through views.

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 Views in Centralized DBMS

• Views can be updated only if they are derived from a single relation by selection
and projection.
• This precludes views defined by joins, aggregates, and so on
• It is interesting to note that views derived by join are updatable if they include the
keys of the base relations.

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 Views in Distributed DBMSs

• A view in a distributed system may be derived from fragmented relations stored at

different sites.
• When a view is defined, its name and its retrieval query are stored in the catalog
• Since views may be used as base relations by application programs, their definition
should be stored in the directory in the same way as the base relation descriptions.

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 Views in Distributed DBMSs

• Depending on the degree of site autonomy offered by the system view definitions
can be centralized at one site, partially duplicated, or fully duplicated.
• In any case, the information associating a view name to its definition site should be
duplicated.
• If the view definition is not present at the site where the query is issued, remote
access to the view definition site is necessary.

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 Views in Distributed DBMSs

• The mapping of a query expressed on views into a query expressed on base

relations (which can potentially be fragmented) can also be done in the same way
as in centralized systems, that is, through query modification.
• With this technique, the qualification defining the view is found in the distributed
database catalog and then merged with the query to provide a query on base
relations.

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 Views in Distributed DBMSs

• Such a modified query is a distributed query, which can be processed by the

distributed query processor
• The query processor maps the distributed query into a query on physical fragments.
• Evaluating views derived from distributed relations may be costly.
• In a given organization it is likely that many users access the same view which must
be recomputed for each user.

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 Views in Distributed DBMSs

• An alternative solution is to avoid view derivation by maintaining actual versions of

the views, called materialized views.
• A materialized view stores the tuples of a view in a database relation, like the other
database tuples, possibly with indices.
• Thus, access to a materialized view is much faster than deriving the view, in
particular, in a distributed DBMS where base relations can be remote.

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• A materialized view is a copy of some base data and thus must be kept consistent
with that base data which may be updated.
• View maintenance is the process of updating (or refreshing) a materialized view to
reflect the changes made to the base data.

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• Major difference is that materialized view expressions, in particular, for data

warehousing, are typically more complex than replica definitions and may include
join, group by and aggregate operators.
• Another major difference is that database replication is concerned with more
general replication configurations, e.g., with multiple copies of the same base data
at multiple sites.

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• View maintenance policy allows a DBA to specify when and how a view should be
refreshed.
• The first question (when to refresh) is related to consistency (between the view and
the base data) and efficiency.
• A view can be refreshed in two modes: immediate or deferred.
• With the immediate mode, a view is refreshed immediately as part as the
transaction that updates base data used by the view.

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• If the view and the base data are managed by different DBMSs, possibly at different
sites, this requires the use of a distributed transaction, for instance, using the two-
phase commit (2PC) protocol
• The main advantages of immediate refreshment are that the view is always
consistent with the base data and that read-only queries can be fast.
• However, this is at the expense of increased transaction time to update both the
base data and the views within the same transactions.
• Furthermore, using distributed transactions may be difficult.

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• In practice, the deferred mode is preferred because the view is refreshed in

separate (refresh) transactions, thus without performance penalty on the
transactions that update the base data.
• The refresh transactions can be triggered at different times: lazily, just before a
query is evaluated on the view; periodically, at predefined times, e.g., every day; or
forcedly, after a predefined number of updates to the base data.

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• Lazy refreshment enables queries to see the latest consistent state of the base data
but at the expense of increased query time to include the refreshment of the view.
• Periodic and forced refreshment allow queries to see views whose state is not
consistent with the latest state of the base data.
• The views managed with these strategies are also called snapshots

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 Maintenance of Materialized Views

• The second question (how to refresh a view) is an important efficiency issue.

• The simplest way to refresh a view is to recompute it from scratch using the base
data.
• In some cases, this may be the most efficient strategy, e.g., if a large subset of the
base data has been changed.
• However, there are many cases where only a small subset of view needs to be
changed. In these cases, a better strategy is to compute the view incrementally, by
computing only the changes to the view.

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 THANK YOU

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