Unit 2

Key words II
 Custom / customs / customer / customary
 Forgo (forego); foregone
 Acquire, acquisition
 Entrepreneur (-ship, -ial)
 Chief executive officer (CEO)
 Invent, inventive, invention, inventor
 Innovate, innovative, innovation, innovator
 Incur (e.g. I will pay any expenses incurred)
 Bookkeeper, bookkeeping
 Account, accountant, accounting
 Retrieve, retrieval
 Store, storage
 Information storage and retrieval
 Economic goods (= scarce goods) vs free goods (= available in sufficient amounts)

 Opportunity cost - the value of the best alternative forgone, in a situation in which
a choice needs to be made between two or more alternatives given limited resources.

E.g., the opportunity cost of going to college is the money you would have
earned if you worked instead. On the one hand, you lose four years of salary while
getting your degree; on the other hand, you hope to earn more during your career,
thanks to your education.
A choice between two options must be made. It would be an easy decision if
you knew the end outcome; however, the risk that you could achieve greater "benefits“
with another option is the opportunity cost.

 Out-of-pocket (= paid from personal funds)

My doctor's office refuses to bill insurance companies any more, so I was out
of pocket for the entire payment until I did all of the paperwork myself for
reimbursement.
 Economic vs free goods

 All scarce goods – from television to chlorinated water - are called economic goods.
Their scarcity leads to costs. While it is customary to associate costs with the money
price of goods, economists define cost as the value of what individuals have to forego to
acquire a scarce good. They identify the opportunities foregone when something is
chosen. The opportunity cost of the choice that is made is the foregone opportunity that
has the greatest or highest value. It is therefore the direct result of the scarcity of
resources.
 Opportunity costs always include all accounting costs. For many activities, accounting or
out-of-pocket costs understate opportunity costs. In economics, opportunity cost is the
true, total measure of the costs of anything.
 Economic goods are those which are scarce in relation to the demand for them. In
economic terms, free goods are goods that are available in sufficient amounts to satisfy
all possible demands. But are many things truly free? Surface water is usually unfit for
drinking except in areas far from human habitation. Water suitable for drinking must be
raised to the surface from deep wells or piped from reservoirs, operations involving
scarce resources even when water itself is not. About the only thing which fits happily
into the category of free goods is air!
 There are basically two categories of scarce resources: human resources and
nonhuman resources. Human resources encompass all types of labour, including
specialized forms of labour such as management or entrepreneurship. Nonhuman
resources include land, natural resources such as minerals and water, capital, and
still other resources such as technology and time.
 Examples of human resources abound. By definition, all human resources apply
talent and energy to produce goods and services. The chief executive of a computer
firm and the assembly-line worker at a General Motors plants both represent human
resources. Knowledge, or know-how, is also part of human resources.
 Human resources utilize nonhuman resources such as land, minerals and natural
resources to produce goods and services. Capital, a second category of nonhuman
resources, comprises all machines, implements, and buildings used to produce goods
and services either directly or indirectly.
 Technology, information and time can also be regarded as resources. Technology, in
general, is a resource comprised of all know-how, inventions and innovations that
help us get more from scarce resources, and also, to make other resources less
scarce.
 Information is a scarce and costly resource that has never been free. In the 19th C
and well into the 20th, businesses hired armies of bookkeepers to provide sufficient
information for managers to use to make decisions. The digital computer, developed
in the mid-twentieth century, made information storage and retrieval far less costly.
 Time is another scarce resource because while its quantity is fixed, the things we
could do with it are numerous and growing over time. We must therefore constantly
make choices. Like all human and nonhuman resources, time is scarce and has a cost
that we inevitably incur when we make a choice.
Vocabulary practice
 It is customary to think that …  Connect
 To associate costs with the money  Normal, usual
price of goods  Make use of
 The press have understated the extent  Exist in large qualities
of the problem  Right for the purpose
 …available in sufficient amounts …
 Enough
 Water suitable for drinking
 Make something seem less important,
 They live in a region where oil
describe as being smaller or less good
abounds. than it really is
 Vitamin C helps your body utilize the
iron present in your diet.
Vocabulary practice
 Time can be regarded as a resource  Tools, implements
 It is composed of innovations and ..  Unavoidably
 That computer made information  Made up of
storage less costly.  Many
 There are numerous problems …  Expensive
 It will happen inevitably.  Considered
 He’ll pay any expenses incurred.  Bring upon oneself
 garden implements  Do without, give up, refrain from
 …individuals have to forgo to acquire
a scarce good.
 Sentence structure:

either / or vs neither / nor

A choice between two possibilities: Two or more things are not true:

You can either buy or sell. I’m interested in neither books nor films.

Verb: singular vs plural Verb: singular vs plural

Either John or Mary attends the meeting. Neither John nor Mary was in the office.
Either John or his colleagues attend the Neither John nor his colleagues were in
meeting. the office.
Either/or & neither/nor?

 His father believed ___ his son ___ his friend. He thought that both were lying.
 I need ___ your help ___ your compassion. I can perfectly handle my problems all
alone.
 ___ Charly ___ Bill will write the report. Just ask one of them.
 ___ you return the money you had stolen ____ I'll call the police.
 Myneighbour can ___ read ___ write. She is illiterate.
 You can use ___ this computer ___ the other one. Someone must fix them first.
 Expressing purpose

In the 19th C and well into the 20th, businesses hired armies of bookkeepers to provide
sufficient information for managers to use to make decisions.
in order to make decisions.
so as to make decisions.

so that they could make decisions.

 I stopped there for a chat.

 This mop is for cleaning the floor.
Complete with: in order to / so as to / so that / for (+ not if necessary)
 Concentrate on your exercise ____ make any mistakes.
 You have to wake up ____ be on time.
 You have to register ____ participate in the forum.
 She left work early ____ be at home when he arrives.
 Ships carry life boats _____ the crew can escape when the ship sinks.
 I will go to university _____ continue my studies.
 He exercises regularly _____ be overweight.
 ____ produce a good essay, you need to edit your writing before you hand it in.
 He went there ____ an interview.
 She works hard ____ she can earn a living.
 These men risk their lives ____we may live more safely.
 ARTICLES

Indefinite article: a manager / an engineer

a unique person, an hour

Definite article: the bank manager / the engineer

No article (Ø article)
He is studying economics.
Managers may be cunning.
This antibiotic is by definition the most effective now on the market.
They always walk hand in hand.
 Countable vs uncountable nouns

COUNT → singular: 1 product & plural: 2 products, 3 products, 4….

This is a new product. / The product they offered is very expensive.

Products can be cheap or expensive. The products they offered are expensive.

My, your…. Product (s)…

This/ that product ….. These / those products………

There are some products in the warehouse.

Are there any products in the warehouse?
There aren’t any products in the warehouse.

How many products do you sell a year?

UC a piece of information, two pieces of information, three ….

Nowadays information may be priceless. The information I received is worthless.

My, your, …. furniture

This / that information

There is some furniture in the warehouse.

Is there any furniture in the warehouse? Do you want some coffee?
There isn’t any furniture in the warehouse.

How much furniture have you bought?

a/an

 He has a car.
 There is a report on your desk.
 He is a bank manager / an Italian.
 J.B., a pupil at London Traffic School, is described as 1.6m tall with short
blonde hair.
 It is $20 a kilo / He drives 60km an hour / It happens once a year.
 A cheetah is an animal. A child likes milk. (in plural: Cheetahs are animals /
Children like milk)

 How long has man lived on Earth?

 I’m going to town.
A or an ? mobile phone / apple / English dictionary / camera / address / key /comb
/photo / identity card / e-mail address / English teacher

Professions:
 He works at a bank. He is a …
 She deals with music.
 Sue works in a shop.
 He drives his boss. …
 Tom builds houses and buildings.
 Mary teaches economics at school.
 John deals with politics.
 He can repair electrical wiring of buildings.
 They cure people.
 She works at a hospital.
 The

 Have you finished writing the report?

 He works in a bank. The bank is in the centre of the city.
 He has two cars. The cars are BMW and Porch.
 It is the oldest building in the town.
 Close the door! / We live in a small town near the church.
 There is a picture on the wall.
 I think the rich should pay more taxes.
 Joe plays the piano really well.
 The kangaroo is found only in Australia (in plural: Kangaroos are found only in
Australia)
 The heart pumps blood around the body. (in plural: Hearts pump blood around
bodies)
 the sun / the Moon / the Earth / the world
 the President / the Pope
system or service! How long does it take on the train.
I heard it on the radio.
You should tell the police.

Church / class / college / court / hospital / market / town / university /prison /

school / bed

The murderer was sentenced to 10 years in prison.

The prison is outside of the city.
The definite article with names:

William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. / Paris is the capital of France. / Iran is in Asia.

 the UK; the Kingdom of Nepal; the US; the People’s Republic of China.
 The Vatican; the Hague; the Netherlands; the Philippines;
 the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic (Ocean); the Amazon; the Adriatic Sea; the
Panama Canal.
 The Orient, the Far East, the North Pole, the Sahara;
 the Empire State Building; the Taj Mahal; the Mona Lisa;
 the United Nations;
 the Politika; the Times;
 the Titanic / the Odeon / the National Theatre;
 the Italians / the Simpsons;
 the Ritz (Hotel); BUT Brown’s; Brown’s Hotel; Morel’s; Morel’s Restaurant, etc.
Street and roads: Downing Street / Michigan Avenue
BUT: the High Street, the Mall, the E5

--------------------------------------------------------

 The Spain of General Franco …

 The John I used to know …
 The Liverpool he returned to….
 The Paris he visited in 1958…
 Ø

Books are expensive.

Inflation is rising.
Tennis is expensive. I love swimming. She likes playing solitaire.

Did you have breakfast / lunch / dinner?

(BUT: I had a quick lunch at Wendy's.)

- on Monday / in March / in summer /at Christmas

- at noon / at night / at midnight / before dusk / after sunset / at sunrise …
(BUT: on the Monday of that week / it was a beautiful sunset)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES:
in charge/ in tears / in danger / at war / by heart / beyond control / on time / by car
We came by car. / We drove in a red car.
INSERT THE APPROPRIATE ARTICLE WHERE NECESSARY:
I
1. This is _____ Mr Johnson.
2. Close ______ door.
3. This is _____ school. _____ school I went to is not a big one.
4._____ life can be hard. _____ life we have is hard.
5. I like _____ cats. _____ cats in the street are all black.
6. Jake’s father makes _____ films.
7. I need _____ new bicycle.
8. I never drink _____ milk.
9. Jane is _____ old friend.
10. I often listen to ____ music.
11. The police looked for him with ____ dogs.
12. My room has got ____ big window.
13. That child wants _____ new shoes.
14. She was wearing ________ orange skirt.
INSERT THE APPROPRIATE ARTICLE WHERE NECESSARY:
II
1. Does he speak __ English? Of course he does. He is __ Englishman. He is from __
Brighton.
2. Do you take __ milk and __ sugar in your coffee?
3. My brother goes to __ school in __ afternoon.
4. __ ugliest man I have ever seen was also __ finest singer I have ever heard.
5. __ sugar you bought yesterday got damp.
6. __ Mr. Rignall phoned and left __ message for you.
7. He was in __ bed with __ flue for 10 days.
8. Your bag is under __ bed.
9. __ Smiths you are looking for no longer live here.
10. We have English classes twice __ week.
11. He drove at __ speed of 50 miles __ hour.
12. What’s __ weather like today?
 QUANTIFIERS

adjectives and adjectival phrases that give approximate answers to the questions
"How much?" and "How many?“

COUNTABLE NOUNS – SINGULAR

I have a dog. Is there a dog in your garden? There isn’t a dog there.
He works in a bank. The bank is in the city centre.
This is my dog. This dog is mine. That chair is his.
 COUNTABLE NOUNS – PLURAL

There are some people in the street. The people are in black.
Are there any people in the office?
There are not any people there. = There are no people.

NOTE: questions where we are sure about the answer:

Could I have some books, please? (I’m sure it won’t be a problem)
Did he give you some books? (= I'm sure he did.)

How many people are there?

There are a few / a number of / several / a large number / a great number of people in
the street.
There are a lot of / lots of / plenty of , 20, 30…
There are none.
 UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

There is some money on the table. I will take the money (=it). The money is …
Do you have any money?
I don’t have any money. = I have no money.

NOTE in polite requests when we expect the answer ‘YES’

Could I have some tea, please?
Why don't you take some milk home with you?
Would you like some coffee?

How much money do you need?

There is a little / a bit of / a great deal of / a large amount of money in the drawer.
There is a lot of / lots of / plenty of
There is none.
NOTE: ‘much’ and ‘many’ are used in negative and question forms.

How much money have you got? How many cigarettes have you smoked?
There's not much sugar in the cupboard. There weren't many people at the concert.

They are also used with ‘too’, ‘(not) so’, and ‘(not) as’ :

There were too many people at the concert - we couldn't see the band.
It's a problem when there are so many people.
There's not so much work to do this week.

In positive statements, we use ‘a lot of’:

I've got a lot of work this week.
There were a lot of people at the concert.
SOME or ANY?
1. Have they got ____ children?
2. They don't want ____ help moving to their new house.
3. I will have ____ news next week.
4. There isn't ____ reason to complain.
5. She has ____ valuable books in her house.
6. Will you have ____more roast beef?
7. Philip wants ____ help with his exams.
8. Are there ____ problems with your work?
9. There is ____ butter in the fridge.
10. We need ____ cheese if we want to make a fondue.
11. Would you like ____ help?
12. Do you have ____ friends in London?
13. She doesn't want ____ kitchen appliances for Christmas.
14. No, thank you. I don't want ____ more cake.
15. Do you want ____groceries from the shop?
 A few & a little (positive attitude)

I've got a few friends (= maybe not many, but enough)

I've got a little money (= I've got enough to live on)

Few & little (negative attitude)

Few people visited him in hospital (= he had almost no visitors)

He had little money (= almost no money)
 Graded Quantifiers

COUNTABLE NOUNS
There are many people in England, more in India, but the most people live in China.
Few rivers in Europe are not polluted. Fewer people die young now than in the
seventeenth century. The country with the fewest people per square kilometre must be
Australia.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Much time and money is spent on education, more on health services but the most is
spent on national defence.
Scientists have little hope of finding a complete cure for cancer before the year 2,000.
She had less time to study than Paul but had better results. Give that dog the least
opportunity and it will bite you.
 ENOUGH

There is enough bread for lunch.

Are there enough eggs to make an omelette?
Richard has enough talent to become a singing star.
 Numbers

Whole or Cardinal Numbers - used for counting:

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ………13, 14, …19, 20, 21, 22,…105, …
Ordinal Numbers - used for ranking: 1st,2nd,3rd,4th…

Fractions 1/2, 2/ 3, 4/5,…

Decimals 1.36 2.569

Thousand: 1,000 (1k)

Million: 1,000,000 (1m)
Billion: 1,000,000,000 (1bn)

‘a dozen’ = 12 (a half dozen = 6)

 Different ways you can say 0 in English

0 use example
oh after a decimal point 9.02 (nine point oh two)
room / bus / phone numbers Room 101
Buss 602
5560023
years 1906
Nought / naught before a decimal point 0.06 (naught point oh six)
zero temperature -10°C (10 degrees below zero)
nil football 2:0
love tennis 15-0
 Squared / Cubed / To the power of

Square numbers 2² = "Two squared"

e.g. 2 x 2 = 4 ( Two squared equals four)

Cubed numbers 2³ = "Two cubed"

e.g. 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 ( Two cubed equals eight)

also "to the power of" :

"Two to the power of two equals four."
"Two to the power of three equals eight."
 Say (write) the following numbers:

a) 3.2 b) €9bn c) 2% d) 10,000 e) 815 f) €102

g) 10.98 h) 1/3 i) 48% j) $4,000 k) 4,905 l) 15.361

m) 2/7 n) 91.3% o) £ 9m p) 1/8 q) -32°C r) RSD5k

s) 6.09 t) 8/9 u) £ 76 v) 719 w) 99 x) 999

y) £100 z) 0.01
 Complete the sentences with a suitable quantifier:

I
A Can you send me ___ information about the hotel, please?
B I’m afraid we don’t have ___ leaflets here. If you go to their website, you can find
___ details there.
A Are there ___ messages for me?
B There’s ___ message for you on your desk.

II
A Do you get ____ useful information from your web report?
B Yes the report gives us ___ interesting data . For example, we know that ____ people
in the US visit our website. But we don’t have ____ hits from people in Australia.
1. I will have ___ news next week.
2. Do you have ___friends in London?
3. ___ time and money is spent on education, but not so ___ on health services.
4. Scientists have ____ hope of finding a complete cure for cancer before the year
2050.
5. Would you like ___help? - I don’t want ___ help from you!
6. There aren’t ____ reasons to do this!
 Correct or not?

1. There’s a lot of informations on our current customers.

2. How many free time do you have?
3. Do you have a statistics on web users?
4. I don’t have much advices for you.
5. I’m sorry, but we don’t have any messages for you.
6. There’s some call for you on line 3.