BRIDGE STRUCTURES

N.SADASIVAM
060901008
A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical
obstacle such as a canyon, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.

Bridges have been built by man in order to

overcome obstacles to travel caused by, for
example, straits, rivers, valleys or existing
roads.
The purpose of a bridge is to carry a service
such as a roadway or a railway. Bridges.
 History of Bridge Development

Natural Bridges 700 A.D. Asia

Great Stone Bridge in China

Clapper Bridge
Tree trunk Low Bridge
Stone Shallow Arch

Strength of
Materials
Mathematical
Theories
Roman Arch Bridge
Development of
The Arch Metal
Natural Cement

100 B.C. Romans 1300 A.D. Renaissance

 History of Bridge Development

1800 A.D. 1900 A.D. 2000 A.D.

Truss Bridges
Prestressed
First Cast-Iron Bridge Mechanics of Concrete
Design
Coalbrookdale, England Steel

Britannia Tubular Bridge Suspension Bridges

Use of Steel for
Wrought Iron the suspending
cables
Bridge Basics
Because of the wide range of structural possibilities, this Spotter's Guide shows only the most common fixed (non-
movable) bridge types. Other types are listed in the Bridge Terminology page. The drawings are not to scale.
Additional related info is found on the other Terminology pages which are linked to the left.
The four main factors are used in describing a bridge. By combining these terms one may give a general description of
most bridge types.

span (simple, continuous, cantilever),

placement of the travel surface in relation to the structure

(deck, pony, through),
form (beam, arch, truss, etc.).
Beam bridges

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by

piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat
across streams and similar simple structures. In modern times,
beam bridges are large box steel girder bridges. Weight on top
of the beam pushes straight down on the piers at either end of
the bridge. They are made up mostly of wood or metal. Beam
bridges typically do not exceed 250 feet (76 m) long. The longer
the bridge, the weaker. The world's longest beam bridge is Lake
Pontchartrain Causeway in southern Louisiana in the United
States, at 23.83 miles (38.35 km), with individual spans of
56 feet (17 m).
Cantilever bridges
Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal
beams that are supported on only one end. Most cantilever
bridges use two cantilever arms extending from opposite
sides of the obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center.
The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre (1,801
ft) Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada

A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers,

structures that project horizontally into space, supported on
only one end. For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be
simple beams; however, large cantilever bridges designed to
handle road or rail traffic use trusses built from structural
steel, or box girders built from prestressed concrete. The
steel truss cantilever bridge was a major engineering
breakthrough when first put into practice, as it can span
distances of over 1,500 feet (460 m), and can be more easily
constructed at difficult crossings by virtue of using little or
no false work.
Arch bridges
Arch bridges have abutments at each end. The earliest known arch
bridges were built by the Greeks and include the Arkadiko Bridge.
The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either
side. Dubai in the United Arab Emirates is currently building
the Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing which is scheduled for
completion in 2012. When completed, it will be the largest arch
bridge in the world.

There are several ways to classify arch bridges. The

placement of the deck in relation to the superstructure
provides the descriptive terms used in all bridges: deck,
pony, and through.
Also the type of connections used at the supports and the
midpoint of the arch may be used - - counting the number of
hinges which allow the structure to respond to varying
stresses and loads. A through arch is shown, but this applies
to all type of arch bridges.
Another method of classification is found in the
configuration of the arch. Examples of solid-ribbed,
brace-ribbed (trussed arch) and spandrel-
braced arches are shown. A solid-ribbed arch is
commonly constructed using curved girder sections.
A brace-ribbed arch has a curved through truss rising
above the deck. A spandrel-braced arch or open
spandrel deck arch carries the deck on top of the
arch.
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest
suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered
with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang
from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The
caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a
lake or river. The longest suspension bridge in the world is
the 12,826 feet (3,909 m) Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan.
[15]
 Seesimple suspension bridge, stressed ribbon
bridge, underspanned suspension bridge, suspended-deck
suspension bridge, and self-anchored suspension bridge.

The longest bridges in the world are suspension bridges or

their cousins, the cable-stayed bridge. The deck is hung from
suspenders of wire rope, eyebars or other materials.
Materials for the other parts also vary: piers may be steel or
masonry; the deck may be made of girders or trussed. A tied
arch resists spreading (drift) at its bearings by using the deck
as a tie piece.
Though Pittsburgh has been a pioneer in bridge design and
fabrication, it has had few suspension bridges. The
Pennsylvania Mainline Canal entered the city on John
Roebling's first wire-rope suspension bridge in 1845
(replacing a failing 1829 wooden structure). A similar
structure still stands at Minnisink Ford, NY, crossing the
Delaware River. Roebling and his son Washington Roebling,
later famous in building the Brooklyn Bridge, began their work
in Saxonburg, PA, north of Pittsburgh.
Suspension bridges in their simplest form were originally made from rope and wood.
Modern suspension bridges use a box section roadway supported by high tensile strength
cables. 
In the early nineteenth century, suspension bridges used iron chains for cables. The high
tensile cables used in most modern suspension bridges were introduced in the late nineteenth
century.
Today, the cables are made of thousands of individual steel wires bound tightly together.
Steel, which is very strong under tension, is an ideal material for cables; a single steel wire,
only 0.1 inch thick, can support over half a ton without breaking. 

Light, and strong, suspension bridges can span distances from 2,000 to 7,000 feet far longer
than any other kind of bridge. They are ideal for covering busy waterways.

With any bridge project the choice of materials and form usually comes down to cost.
Suspension bridges tend to be the most expensive to build. A suspension bridge suspends
the roadway from huge main cables, which extend from one end of the bridge to the other.
These cables rest on top of high towers and have to be securely anchored into the bank at
either end of the bridge.
The towers enable the main cables to be draped over long distances. Most of the weight or
load of the bridge is transferred by the cables to the anchorage systems. These are imbedded
in either solid rock or huge concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cables are spread
over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking free.
 Cable-stayed bridge

A cable-stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of

one or more columns (normally referred to
as towers or pylons), with cables supporting the
bridge deck.
There are two major classes of cable-stayed
bridges: In a harp design, the cables are made
Bridge-fan-cable-stayed nearly parallel by attaching them to various points
on the tower(s) so that the height of attachment of
each cable on the tower is similar to the distance
from the tower along the roadway to its lower
attachment. In a fan design, the cables all connect
to or pass over the top of the tower(s).
Compared to other bridge types, the cable-stayed is
optimal for spans longer than typically seen
Bridge-harp-cable-stayed
in cantilever bridges and shorter than those typically
requiring a suspension bridge. This is the range in
which cantilever spans would rapidly grow heavier if
they were lengthened, and in which suspension
cabling does not get more economical were the
span to be shortened.
Truss bridges
Truss bridges are composed of connected elements. They
have a solid deck and a lattice of pin-jointed or gusset-joined
girders for the sides. Early truss bridges were made of wood,
and later of wood with iron tensile rods, but modern truss
bridges are made completely of metals such as wrought iron
and steel or sometimes of reinforced concrete. The Quebec
Bridge, mentioned above as a cantilever bridge, is also the
world's longest truss bridge

A truss is a structure made of many smaller parts. Once

constructed of wooden timbers, and later including iron
tension members, most truss bridges are built of metal.
Types of truss bridges are also identified by the terms deck,
ponyand through which describe the placement of the travel
surface in relation to the superstructure (see drawings
above). The king post truss is the simplest type; the queen
post truss adds a horizontal top chord to achieve a longer
span, but the center panel tends to be less rigid due to its
lack of diagonal bracing.
Covered bridge types (truss)Covered bridges are typically
wooden truss structures. The enclosing roof protected the
timbers from weathering and extended the life of the bridge.
One of the more common methods used for achieving longer
spans was the multiple kingpost truss. A simple, wooden,
kingpost truss forms the center and panels are added
symmetrically. With the use of iron in bridge construction,
theHowe truss - - in its simplest form - - appears to be a type
of multiple kingpost truss.
Double-decked bridges
Double-decked or double-decker bridges have two levels,
such as the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge, with two
road levels. Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun
Bridge in Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks,
and on their lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of
tracks for MTR metro trains. Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince
Edward Viaduct has four lanes of motor traffic on its upper
deck and a pair of tracks for the Bloor–Danforth subway line.
Some double-decker bridges only use one level for street
traffic; the Washington Avenue Bridge in
Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile traffic and
its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic
(predominantly students at the University of Minnesota).
Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River
Tyne in Newcastle upon Tyne, completed in 1849, is an early
example of a double-deck bridge. The upper level carries a
railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic. Another
example is Craigavon Bridge in Derry,Northern Ireland.
The Oresund
Bridge between Copenhagen and Malmö consists of a four-
lane highway on the upper level and a pair of railway tracks
at the lower level.
The George Washington Bridge between New Jersey and
New York has two roadway levels. It was built with only the
upper roadway as traffic demands did not require more
capacity. A truss work between the roadway levels provides
stiffness to the roadways and reduced movement of the
upper level when installed. Tower Bridge is different example
of a double-decker bridge, with the central section consisting
of a low level bascule span and a high level footbridge.
Rotating bridge Movable bridges
Some bridges are not fixed crossings, but can
move out of the way of boats or other kinds of
traffic which, ideally, moves under them, but is
sometimes too tall to fit. These are generally
electrically powered.

Bascule
Bailey bridge • One or two sections
not supported by
piers
• Balanced on one end
by counterweights
• Section jackknifes up
to allow passage of
ships
Vertical lift bridge • Most common type of
highway drawbridge

Vertical Lift
• Central span extends
Lifting bridge between two towers
• Balanced by
counterweights
Bailey
• Small truss bridge
made in sections
• Assembled on shore
• Pushed out from shore
to cover span
• Transportable to new
sites
 LOADS ON
BRIDGESThe following
are the various loads to
be considered for the
purpose of computing
stresses, wherever they
are applicable.
•Dead load
•Live load
•Impact load
•Longitudinal force
•Thermal force
•Wind load
•Seismic load
•Racking force
•Forces due to
curvature.
•Forces on parapets
•Frictional resistance of
expansion bearings
Normal span ranges of bridge system
HOWRAH BRIDGE
The Rabridra Setu or more famously called the Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly is primarily a cantilever truss
bridge, built inthe year 1943. The bridge is completely made up of steel. By the 19th century, Calcutta and Howrah
had grown to be the most important economic and cultural centres, and a need for bridging the Hooghly River
arose.A proposal to build a bridge over the Hooghly was made by the government of Bengal, but the following
observations were made :

•The foundations for a bridge at Calcutta would be at a considerable depth because of the depth of the mud there.

•the structure would cause considerable hindrance to the shipping on the river

•The only feasible site was at a great distance.

Construction of the New Howrah Bridge was started on 1937. The Cantilever Era was prevailing at that time, and
engineers felts that Cantilever bridges were more rigid than suspension bridge. This bridge is one of the finest
Cantilever bridges in the world -left to India by the British engineers.
Considering various aspects like navigational, hydraulics, tidal conditions of the river and the projected traffic conditions,
Rendel Palmer & Tritton came up with a design for a Cantilever bridge of 1500 feet, with a 71 feet wide roadway and
two 15 feet wide cantilever footways.
The contract was awarded to Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Co. Ltd of Darlington with a strong recommendation that
they use Indian-made steel, which they agreed to do. Out of the total 26,500 tons of steel used, Tata Iron and Steel
Company supplied 23,500 tons of steel and fabrication was done by Braithwaite, Burn and Jessop Co. at four different
shops in Calcutta.
The two huge caissons which was sunk (on the first stage of construction) is still the biggest ever sunk
caisson on land.
To keep the water out at depth of around the foundations so that construction can be done, around 500
people were employed onthe compressed air operation. The air pressure maintained was about 40 lbs per
square inch (2.8 bar).. By the end of 1940 the erection of the cantilever arms was commenced and was
completed in mid-summer of 1941.
The two halves of the suspended span, each long and weighing 2,000 tons, were built in December 1941.
16 hydraulic jacks, each of 800 ton capacity were pressed in to service for joining the two halves of the
suspended span.
After completing the steel work of the deck and concreting of roadway. the New Howrah Bridge was finally
opened to traffic onFebruary 1943
 •Central span 1500 ft between
centres of main towers

•Anchor arm 325ft each

•Cantilever arm 468ft each

•Suspended span 564ft

•Main towers are 280ft high

above the monoliths and 76 ft
apart at the top

•Bridge deck width 71 ft with

two footpaths of 15 ft either side

Foundation

•The main tower is founded with

15 ft wide footpath on either sides of the bridge
single monoliths which are 55.31 x
24.8m in plan with 21 chambers

•Monoliths at Calcutta and Howrah

side are founded31.41 m and 26.53
m in below ground level respectively.

•Minimum headroom in carriageway

is 5.8 m

•Freeboard for river traffic is 8.8 m

Other features of the Bridge

•All members of the super structure comprise built up riveted

sections with a combination of high tensile and mild steel

•Between towers bridge deck hangs from panel points in the

lower chord of the main trusses with a series of hungers (39
pairs)

•Road way beyond the tower is supported on ground leaving

anchor arm free from deck loads

•Bridge deck comprises 71 ft carriage way and 15 ft footway

projecting either side of the trusses and braced by a
longitudinal fascia girder.More about the Bridge

•The deck system consists of cross girders hung between

pairs of hungerswith pinned connection.

•Six rows of longitudinal stringer girdersspan between cross

girder.

•Floor joists supported transversely on top of stringers.

•They support a continuous pressed steel troughingsystem.

•Over which deck concrete is laid out.

1. This example of ropes that are spanning two cliffs shows
what basically is a catenary.
2. This is a picture of the master mechanic E.F. Farrington
traveling the length of the newly installed cable of the
Brooklyn Bridge. The cable is an example of a catenary,
curving under the weight of itself (the weight of Farrington is
insignificant).
3. This picture shows the deck being added to the cables of
the Brooklyn Bridge. The catenary is slowly becoming a
parabola Up close, the suspension bridge is an amazing and
beautiful structure that can span rivers and connect cities
hundreds of miles apart. From a distance they look fragile,
hanging from almost transparent threads. Despite their
seeming fragility, suspension bridges are very, very strong
thanks to their design and the materials used to build them.
These awe-inspiring bridges alone balance the forces of
tension and compression, managing to stay up through
hurricanes, storms, and earth-quakes.
The History
Carries Motor vehicles (cars only) Elevated trains (until 1944) Streetcars
(until 1950) Pedestrians, and Bicycles
Crosses East River
Locale New York City (Manhattan–Brooklyn)
Maintained by New York City Department of Transportation
Designer John Augustus Roebling
Design Suspension/Cable-stay Hybrid
Total length 5,989 feet (1825 m)[1]
Width 85 feet (26 m)
Longest span 1,595 feet 6 inches (486.3 m)
Clearance below 135 feet (41 m) at mid-span
Opened May 24, 1883
Construction began on January 3, 1870. The Brooklyn Bridge
was completed thirteen years later and was opened for use
on May 24, 1883. The Brooklyn Bridge might not have been
built had it not been for the assistance of Emily Warren
Roebling, who provided the critical written link between her
husband, Washington Roebling (the Chief Engineer), and
engineers on-site.[8] Most history books cite Washington
Roebling's father John Roebling and Washington Roebling as
the bridge’s builders. Early into construction, however, John
Roebling’s foot slipped into a group of pylons from the shake
of an incoming ferry.[9] This badly crushed his toes, causing
those toes to be amputated, leaving him incapacitated; he
later died of an infection related to his injury and leaving his
son, Washington Roebling, in charge of the bridge. The
actual construction started under the younger Roebling. Not
long after taking charge of the bridge, Washington Roebling
suffered a paralyzing injury as well, the result of
decompression sickness. This condition plagued many of the
underwater workers, in different capacities, as the condition
was relatively unknown at the time and in fact was first called
"caisson disease" by the project physician Dr. Andrew
Smith.With both men out of commission, Emily Warren
Roebling provided critical assistance in providing the
communications between her husband and the engineers on-
site. Under her husband’s guidance, Emily had studied higher
mathematics, the calculations of catenary curves, the
strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the
intricacies of cable construction. [12] [13][14] She spent the
next 11 years assisting Washington Roebling in the
supervision of the bridge’s construction.
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge

http://www.pghbridges.com/basics.htm