Module -4

Power System Stability

 Dynamics of Synchronous machine
kinetic energy of the rotor of synchronous machine is

where

But

Where
We shall define the inertia constant H such that

M is also called the inertia constant.

Taking G as base, the inertia constant in pu is
 Swing equation
Importance of Swing equation
• In power system number of synchronous machines operate synchronously
under all operating condition.
• Swing equation describes relative motion of these machines and is a second
order differential equation.
• Under normal operating conditions, Tm = Te, and act in opposite direction,
therefore net torque on rotor is zero.
• It results in constant angular velocity of rotor at normal conditions.
• If load is added or removed from rotor shaft, it will de-accelerate or
accelerate wrt synchronously rotating field.
 Swing equation
Figure shows the torque, speed and flow of mechanical and electrical powers in synchronous
machine

Assuming windage ,friction and iron loss are negligible.

The differential equation governing the rotor dynamics is
Assuming that rotor speed remains constant at synchronous speed
Multiplying both sides by wsm
Let

Therefore,

Dividing by G through out, the MVA rating of machine

 Power Angle Equation
For solving swing equation certain simplifying assumptions are made
These are:
• Mechanical power input to the machine (Pm) remains constant during the
period of electromechanical transient of interest. In other words, it means
that the effect of the turbine governing loop is ignored being much slower
than the speed of the transient. This assumption leads to pessimistic
result—governing loop helps to stabilize the system.
• Rotor speed changes are insignificant—these have already been ignored in
formulating the swing equation.
• Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient is ignored, as a
consequence the generated machine emf remains constant. This assumption
also leads to pessimistic results—voltage regulator helps to stabilize the
system.
 Power Angle curve
• For the purposes of stability studies |E′|, transient emf of generator/ motor, remains
constant or is the independent variable determined by the voltage regulating loop
but V, the generator determined terminal voltage is a dependent variable.

Now,
• The nodes (buses) of the stability study network represents emf terminal in the
machine model
• The machine reactance (X′d) is absorbed in the system network .
• the loads (other than large synchronous motors) will be replaced by equivalent
static admittances (connected in shunt between transmission network buses and the
reference bus).
For a two bus system shown in figure
Since in solution of the swing equation only real power is involved

A similar equation will hold at bus 2.

Let

For a purely reactive network

Hence

Where

simplified power angle equation

Where, X = transfer reactance between nodes (i.e., between E′1 and E′2)
The graphical plot of power angle equation
 Node Elimination Technique
• In stability studies, it has been indicated that the buses to be considered are those which are
excited by the internal machine voltages (transient emf s) and not the load buses which are
excited by the terminal voltages of the generators.
• Therefore, in YBUS formulation for the stability study, the load buses must be eliminated.
• These are illustrated by the simple system of Fig. 12.7(a) whose reactance diagram is drawn
in Fig. 12.7(b).
By series – parallel method

Consider now a more complicated case wherein a 3-phase fault occurs at the midpoint
of one of the lines
Node elimination method
Admittance diagram

Y bus for the above diagram

Now bus 3 has to be eliminated, for 3 bus system

Since no source is connected
at the bus 3

substituting this value of V3 in

the remaining two equations
Where

In general, in eliminating node n

For above example

And
 Simple Systems
1. Machine connected to infinite bus
Circuit model of a single machine connected to infinite bus through a line of
reactance Xe.
2. Two machine system
One of the machines must be generating and the other must be motoring.
Under steady condition, mechanical I/P or O/P of two machines are considered
to be constant.

During steady state, electrical output of generator must be absorbed by motor .

Thus all the time
The swing equations for the two machines can now be written as
Subtracting above two equations

Where

The electrical power interchange is given by expression

This equation is called power angle equation.

 Steady state stability
• The steady state stability limit of a particular circuit of a power
system is defined as the maximum power that can be
transmitted to the receiving end without loss of synchronism.
• Consider the simple system having dynamic equation as
• Let the system be operating with steady power transfer of Pe0=Pm. with
torque angle δ0
• Assume a small increment ΔP in the electric power with the input from the
prime mover remaining fixed at Pm. (governor response is slow compared
to the speed of energy dynamics), causing the torque angle to change to
(δ0+Δδ)
• Linearizing about the operating point Q0(Pe0,δ0)
where

Having roots
i) When
• The roots are purely imaginary and conjugate and the system
behaviour is oscillatory about δ0.
• Line resistance and damper windings of machine, which have
been ignored in the above modelling, cause the system
oscillations to decay.
• The system is therefore stable for a small increment in power
ii) When
• The roots are real, one positive and the other negative but of
equal magnitude.
• The torque angle therefore increases without bound upon
occurrence of a small power increment (disturbance) and the
synchronism is soon lost.
• The system is therefore unstable
• (∂Pe/∂δ)0 is known as synchronizing coefficient. This is also
called stiffness (electrical) of synchronous machine
• Assuming |E| and |V| to remain constant, the system is
unstable, if

• The maximum power that can be transmitted without loss of

stability (steady state) occurs for

• and is given by
 Equal Area Criterion
Consider the swing equation

• If the system is unstable δ continues

to increase indefinitely with time and
the machine loses synchronism.
• If the system is stable, δ(t) performs oscillations (nonsinusoidal) whose
amplitude decreases in actual practice because of damping terms
• This leads to stability criterion,
That the system is stable if at some time

and is unstable, if for a sufficiently long time

Multiplying both sides of the swing equation by (2 dδ/dt) we get

where δ0 is the initial rotor angle before it begins to swing due to disturbance
• The condition of stability can therefore be stated as: the system is stable if
the area under Pa (accelerating power) – δ curve reduces to zero at some
value of δ
• OR , the positive (accelerating) area under Pa — δ curve must equal the
negative (decelerating) area and hence the name ‘equal area’ criterion of
stability.
 Sudden change in Mechanical Input
The transient model of a single machine tied to infinite bus bar is
shown.

The electrical power transmitted is given by

Under steady operating condition
• Consider sudden change increase
In mechanical power from an initial
value Pm0 to Pm1.
• Due to rotor inertia, rotor angle
Doesn’t change instantaneously from
δ0 to δ1 corresponding to point b at
Which Pe = Pm1.
• Mechanical power is greater than Pe
Which results in acceleration from ‘a’
To ‘b’.
• Pm-Pe = 0 at ‘b’ but rotor speed is higher than synchronous speed ωs. Hence
rotor angle continues to increase.
• For δ > δ1, Pe > Pm1, Therefore, rotor deaccelerates.
• At some peak value of δ= δm, rotor speed = ωs., but Pe>Pm1 so rotor
deaccelerates with speed dropping and operating point traces path from c to
b to a
• Oscillatios decay and settle down at ‘b’ where Pm1= Pe = Pmax sin δ1
• For the system to be stable, it should be possible to find angle δ2 such that
A1=A2.
• As Pm1 is increased, a limiting condition is finally reached when A1 equals
the area above the Pm1 line as shown in Fig

• Under this condition, δ2 acquires

the maximum value such that

• Any further increase in Pm1 means that the area available for A2 is less than
A1, so that the excess kinetic energy causes δ to increase beyond point c
and the decelerating power changes over to accelerating power, with the
system consequently becoming unstable
 Sudden loss of one parallel line
Consider now a single machine tied to infinite bus through two parallel lines

Circuit model of the system is given in Fig.

If one of the lines is suddenly switched off with the system operating at a
steady load
Before switching off,
power angle curve is given by

Immediately on switching off line 2,

power angle curve is given by

Since (X′d+X1)>(X′d+X1 II X2), therefore PeI > PeII

• Let system operate initially with steady power transfer Pe = Pm at torque
angle δ0 (‘a’) on curve 1.
• After line 2 is switched off, operating point shifts to ‘b’ on curve 2.
• Acceleration and deacceleration occurs and finally system operates at point
‘c’