Review of

Vector Analysis

EEL 3472
 Review of Vector Analysis

Review of Vector Analysis

Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which

electromagnetic (EM) concepts are most conveniently
expressed and best comprehended.

A quantity is called a scalar if it has only magnitude (e.g.,

mass, temperature, electric potential, population).

A quantity is called a vector if it has both magnitude and

direction (e.g., velocity, force, electric field intensity).

The magnitude of a vector A is a scalar written as A or A

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A unit vector eA along is defined as a vector whose

magnitude is unity (that is,1) and its direction is along

A A ( eA  1)
eA  
A A
Thus

A  AeA

which completely specifies A in terms of A and its

direction eA

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A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may

be represented as

(A x , A y , A z ) or A x ex  A y ey  A z ez

where AX, Ay, and AZ are called the components of A in the

x, y, and z directions, respectively; e x , e y , and e z are unit
vectors in the x, y and z directions, respectively.

  

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Suppose a certain
vector V is given by
V  2ex  3ey  4ez
The magnitude or
absolute value of
the vector V is

V  22  32  42  5.385

(from the Pythagorean theorem)

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The Radius Vector

A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by

specifying (x, y, z). The radius vector (or position vector) of
point P is defined as the directed distance from the origin O
to P; that is,
r  x ex  y ey  z ez

The unit vector in the direction of r is

x ex  y ey  z ez r
er  
x 2  y 2  z2 r

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Vector Algebra

Two vectors A and B can be added together to give

another vector C ; that is ,

C AB

Vectors are added by adding their individual components.

Thus, if A x ex  A y ey  A z ez and B  Bx ex  By ey  Bz ez

C  (A x  Bx )ex  (A y  By )ey  (Az  Bz )ez

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Parallelogram Head to
rule tail rule

Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as

D  A  B  A  (B )
D  (A x  Bx )ex  (A y  By )ey  (A z  Bz )ez

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The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any given vector

A, B, and C, are summarized as follows:

Law Addition Multiplication

Commutative AB BA kA  Ak

Associative A  (B  C)  (A  B)  C k(lA)  (kl)A

Distributive k(A  B)  kA  k B

where k and l are scalars

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When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is

either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are
multiplied. There are two types of vector multiplication:

1. Scalar (or dot) product: AB

2.Vector (or cross) product: AB

The dot product of the two vectors A and B is defined

geometrically as the product of the magnitude of B and the
projection of A onto B (or vice versa):

A  B  AB cos  A B

where  A B is the smaller angle between A and B

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If A  (AX , A Y , AZ , ) and B  (BX , BY , BZ ) then

A  B  A XBX  A YB Y  AZBZ

which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by

component

AB  BA

A  (B  C )  A  B  A  C
2
A A  A  A2

eX  ey  ey  ez  eZ  ex  0
 eX  ex  ey  ey  eZ  ez  1

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The cross product of two vectors A and B is defined as

A  B  AB sin  A Ben
where en is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A
and B . The direction of en is determined using the right-
hand rule or the right-handed screw rule.

Direction of A  B
and en using
(a) right-hand rule,
(b) right-handed
screw rule

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If A  (AX , A Y , AZ , ) and B  (BX , BY , BZ ) then

ex ey ez
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

 (A yBz  A zBy )ex  (AzBx  A xBz )ey  (A xBy  A yBx )ez

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Note that the cross product has the following basic

properties:
(i) It is not commutative: AB  B A

It is anticommutative: A  B  B  A

(ii) It is not associative: A  (B  C)  (A  B)  C

(iii) It is distributive: A  (B  C )  A  B  A  C

(iv) AA 0 (sin   0)

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Also note that

ex  ey  ez
ey  ez  ex
ez  ex  ey
which are obtained in cyclic permutation and illustrated
below.

Cross product using cyclic permutation: (a) moving clockwise leads to positive results;
(b) moving counterclockwise leads to negative results

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Scalar and Vector Fields

A field can be defined as a function that specifies a particular

quantity everywhere in a region (e.g., temperature
distribution in a building), or as a spatial distribution of a
quantity, which may or may not be a function of time.

Scalar quantity  scalar function of position  scalar field

Vector quantity  vector function of position  vector field

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Line Integrals

A line integral of a vector field can be calculated whenever a

path has been specified through the field.

The line integral of the field V along the path P is defined as

P2

 V  dl   V
P P1
cos  dl

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Example. The vector V is given by V  Vo ex where Vo

is a constant. Find the line integral
I  V  dl
P

where the path P is the closed path below.

It is convenient to break the path P up into the four parts P1,

P2, P3 , and P4.

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V  Voex



For segment P1, dl  dx ex Thus

x  xo xo

 V  dl  
P1 x 0
(Vo ex )  (dx ex )  Vo  (ex  ex )dx  Vo (xo  0)  Voxo
0

For segment P2, dl  dy e y and

y  yo

 V  dl   (V e )  (dy e ) 0
P2 y 0
o x y (since ex  e y  0)

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For segment P3,

dl  dxex (the differential length dl points to the left)

x  xo


 V  dl   (V e )  (dx e )  - V x
P3 x 0
o x x o o

 V  dl  0
P4

I        V x
P1 P2 P3 P4
o o  0  Voxo  0  0 (conservative field)

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Example. Let the vector field V be given by V  Vo ex.

Find the line integral of V over the semicircular path shown
below
Consider the contribution of
the path segment located at
the angle 

dl  dl cos ex
 dl sin ey

Since    - 90
cos  cos( - 90)  sin 
sin   sin(  - 90)  cos
dl  dl sin ex
 dl cos ey
{  (sin ex  cos ey )
 ad
dl

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 180
I


0
(V e )  (sin e
o x x  cos e y )ad

180
 aVo  [sin  (ex  ex )  cos  (ex  e y )]d
 
0 1 0
180
 aVo  sin d   aVo (cos
   cos
180 0)
0 1 1

 2aVo

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Surface Integrals

Surface integration amounts to adding up normal

components of a vector field over a given surface S.

The flux of
a vector
field A
through
surface S

We break the surface S into small surface elements and

assign to each element a vector ds  ds en

ds is equal to the area of the surface element

en is the unit vector normal (perpendicular) to the surface
element

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(If S is a closed surface, ds is by convention directed

outward)
Then we take the dot product of the vector field V at the
position of the surface element with vector ds. The result is
a differential scalar. The sum of these scalars over all the
surface elements is the surface integral.

 V  ds   V
S S
ds cos 

V cos  is the component of V in the direction of ds (normal

to the surface). Therefore, the surface integral can be
viewed as the flow (or flux) of the vector field through the
surface S
(the net outward flux in the case of a closed surface).

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Example. Let V be the radius vector

V  xex  yey  zez

The surface S is defined by

zc
d x  d
d y  d

The normal to the surface is directed in the +z direction

Find
 V  ds
S

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Surface S

V is not perpendicular to S, except at one point on the Z axis

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 V  ds   V ds cos 
S S

c
V  x 2  y 2  c2 ds  dxdy cos 
x 2  y 2  c2
V c os
x  d y  d     ds
 x d
c
S   dydx  c  [d  (d)]dx
2 2 2
V  ds  x  y  c 
2 2 2
x  d y  d x y c x  d

 2dc[d - (-d)]  4d2c

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Introduction to Differential Operators

An operator acts on a vector field at a point to produce

some function of the vector field. It is like a function of a
function.
If O is an operator acting on a function f(x) of the single
variable X , the result is written O[f(x)]; and means that
first f acts on X and then O acts on f.

Example. f(x) = x2 and the operator O is (d/dx+2)

O[f(x)]=d/dx(x2 ) + 2(x2 ) = 2x +2(x2 ) = 2x(1+x)

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An operator acting on a vector field O[V(x, y, z)] can produce

either a scalar or a vector.

Example. O(A)  A  A (the length operator), V  3yex  zey

Evaluate O(V) at the point x=1, y=2, z=-2

O(V)  V  V  9y2  z2  40  6.32  scalar


Thus, O is a scalar operator acting on a vector field.

Example. O(A)  A A  A  2A , V  3yex  zey ,

x=1, y=2, z=-2
O(V)  (3y ex  z ey ) 9y2  z2  6y ex  2z ey
 (6 ex  2ey ) 40  12ex  4ey
 49.95 ex  16.65ey  vector

Thus, O is a vector operator acting on a vector field.

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Vector fields are often specified in terms of their rectangular

components:

V(x, y, z)  Vx(x, y, z)ex  Vy(x, y, x)ey  Vz(x, y, z)ez

where Vx , Vy , and Vz are three scalar features functions of

position. Operators can then be specified in terms of Vx ,
Vy , and Vz .

The divergence operator is defined as

  
V  Vx  Vy  Vz
x y z

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Example V  x2ex  yey  (2  x)ez . Evaluate   V at the

point x=1, y=-1, z=2.

Vx  x2 Vy  y Vz  2  x
  
Vx  2x Vy  1 Vz  0
x y z

  V  2x  1  3

Clearly the divergence operator is a scalar operator.

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1. V - gradient, acts on a scalar to produce a vector

2.   V - divergence, acts on a vector to produce a scalar

3.   V - curl, acts on a vector to produce a vector

4. 2V -Laplacian, acts on a scalar to produce a scalar

Each of these will be defined in detail in the subsequent

sections.

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Coordinate Systems

In order to define the position of a point in space, an

appropriate coordinate system is needed. A considerable
amount of work and time may be saved by choosing a
coordinate system that best fits a given problem. A hard
problem in one coordinate system may turn out to be easy
in another system.

We will consider the Cartesian, the circular cylindrical, and

the spherical coordinate systems. All three are orthogonal
(the coordinates are mutually perpendicular).

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Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z)

The ranges of the coordinate variables are
 x 
 y 
z 
A vector A in Cartesian coordinates can be written as
(A x , A y , A z ) or A x ex  A y ey  A z ez

The intersection of three

orthogonal infinite places
(x=const, y= const, and z =
const)
defines point P.

Constant x, y and z surfaces

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dl  dxex  dyey  dz ez

d  dxdydz

Differential elements in the right handed Cartesian coordinate system

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dS  dydz ax
dxdz ay
dxdy az

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Cylindrical Coordinates (, , z) .

0 - the radial distance from the z – axis

0    2 - the azimuthal angle, measured from the x-
axis in the xy – plane
- the same as in the Cartesian system.
z

A vector in cylindrical coordinates can be written as

(A , A Az ) or A e  A e  Az ez

2 2 2
A  (A  A   Az )1 / 2

Cylindrical coordinates amount to a combination of

rectangular coordinates and polar coordinates.

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Relationship between (x,y,z) and (, , z)

Positions in the x-y plane are determined by the values of

 and 
y
  x2  y2   tan1 zz
x

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Point P and unit vectors

in the cylindrical
coordinate system

e  e  ez
e  ez  e
ez  e  e

e  e  e  e  ez  ez  1
e  e  e  ez  e  e  0

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semi-infinite
plane with its
edge along
the z - axis

Constant ,  and z surfaces

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Metric coefficient

dl  d ap  da  dz az

dv  dddz

Differential elements in cylindrical coordinates

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dS  ddza
ddza
d  d  a z



Cylindrical Planar surface Planar surface

surface (  = const) ( z =const)
(  =const)



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Spherical coordinates (r, , ) .

0r - the distance from the origin to the point P

0 - the angle between the z-axis and the radius
Colatitude
( polar angle)
vector of P
0    2 - the same as the azimuthal angle in
cylindrical coordinates



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er  e  e
e  e  er
e  er  e

er  er  e  e  e  e  1
Point P and unit vectors in spherical
coordinates
er  e  e  e  e  er  0

A vector A in spherical coordinates may be

written as
(Ar , A  A  ) or Ar er  A  e  A  e
2 2 2
A  (Ar  A   A  )1 / 2

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2 2 2 1 x2  y2 y x
r x y z   tan   tan-1  cos1
z x x2  y2
 z
  tan1  cos1
z r

x  r sin  cos 
y  r sin  sin 
z  r cos 

Relationships between space variables (x, y, z), (r, , ), and (, , z)

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Constant r, , and  surfaces

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dl  dr ar  rd a  r sin d a

dv  r2 sindrdd

Differential elements in the spherical coordinate system

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dS  r 2 sin  d d ar
r sin  dr d a
rdr d a

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POINTS TO REMEMBER

1.

2.

3.

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4.

5.

6.

7.

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