HOW GENES WORK

Lesson 11.3
The individual’s GENE determine which
traits will appear.
Genes are specific sequence of
nucleotides that determines the
traits which are located in the
chromosomes found in the nucleus
of most cell.
PROTEINS ARE THE TOOLS OF HEREDITY

 Every cell, must store and transmit  Protein synthesis is the formation
information needed to of proteins using the information
manufacture proteins through coded on DNA and carried out by
protein synthesis. RNA.
PROTEIN

 Each protein molecule is made up of one or more

polymers, called polypeptides, consisting of amino acids
linked together by peptide bonds.
THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION

COPIER ENZYME MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)

 With its help, humans and all other  It takes the genetic information
organisms will be able to transfer from sections of the DNA from the
copies of their DNA on to the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
offspring to continue their species.
DNA NEVER LEAVES THE
NUCLEUS.
NUCLEOTIDES

 The four subunits where DNA is made of.

 Has three parts which are the five - carbon sugar, phosphate, and a
nitrogenous base.
Nucleotides vary according to the type
of base present.

PURINES (Two Large Bases) PYRIMIDINES (Two Small Bases)

 Adenine  Thymine
 Guanine  Cytosine
CHARGAFF’S RULE

 Adenine on one side always pairs up with Thymine on the

other side, while Guanine always pairs up with Cytosine.
DNA REPLICATION

 DNA seperates in the middle and serves as a template for the formation of a
complementary strand.
 Generates two daughter molecules, each consisting of one parental DNA
strand and one complementary strand.
 Maintains the complementary nature of the DNA molecule.
DNA REPLICATION

 HELICASE
 REPLICATION FORK
 LEADING STRAND
 LAGGING STRAND
DNA REPLICATION

 PRIMASE
 PRIMER
 OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS
 EXONUCLEUS
 LIGASE
 DNA IS USED AS A
BLUEPRINT TO MAKE A
SIMILAR MOLECULE
CALLED RIBONUCLEIC
ACID (RNA).
RNA DIRECTS THE
FORMATION OF
PROTEINS.
GENE EXPRESSION

 The use of genetic information in DNA to make proteins.

 Translation and Transcription
DIFFERENCE OF RNA AND DNA

 RNA consist only of one strand, it has ribose as its five - carbon sugar instead
of deoxyribose, and it has the nitrogen base uracil instead of thymine.
TRANSCRIPTION
 An RNA copy of a gene is made.
TRANSLATION
 Three different kinds of RNA work
together to assemble amino acids
into a protein molecule. Messenger
RNA (mRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA),
and Ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
FIRST STAGE: TRANSCRIPTION

 An RNA molecule is synthesized from the gene within the DNA.

 Each gene is copied from a fixed starting position called the PROMOTER SITE.
 RNA polymerase binds into one strand of the DNA double helix and moves
along the DNA strand causing the seperation of the complementary strands of
the DNA.
 The enzyme directs then directs the formation of the hydrogen bonds
between the bases of a DNA strand and complementary bases of nucleotides
floating in the nucleus.
 When RNA polymerase reaches the sequence of bases on the DNA that acts as
a termination signal, the enzyme triggers the release of the newly made RNA.
SECOND STAGE: TRANSLATION

 The process of assembling protein molecules from information encoded in the

mRNA.
 After transcription, the mRNA strand leaves the cell’s nucleus and travels in
to cytoplasm.
 Amino acids are transported to the ribosomes by RNA.
 Each tRNA has a region that is bound to a specific amino acid.
 tRNA molecule is specifically instructed to carry amino acid molecules from
the cytoplasm of the cell to binding sites located in the ribosomes.
ANTICODON

 The set of three nitrogen bases complementary to the bases of the mRNA.
MUTATION

 Occurs when there is a change in the order of the bases in the organism’s
DNA.
DELETION
 When a base is left out.
Cri Du Chat
 Cri du chat syndrome, also known
as chromosome 5p deletion
syndrome, 5p− syndrome (pronounced
"five P minus") or Lejeune's syndrome, is a
rare genetic disorder due
to chromosome deletion on chromosome
5. Its name is a French term ("cat-cry" or
"call of the cat") referring to the
characteristic cat-like cry of affected
children. It was first described by Jérôme
Lejeune in 1963. The condition affects an
estimated 1 in 50,000 live births across
all ethnicities and is more common in
females by a 4:3 ratio.
 The syndrome gets its name from the
characteristic cry of affected infants,
which is similar to that of
a meowing kitten, due to problems with
the larynx and nervous system.
INSERTION SUBSTITUTION
 An extra base is added.  The most common error.
HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE  Occurs when an incorrect base replaces a
 Huntington disease is a correct base.
progressive brain disorder that causes SICKLE CELL ANEMIA
uncontrolled movements, emotional  Is caused by substitution mutation, where
problems, and loss of thinking ability in codon (GAG mutates to --> GTG) and
(cognition). leads to (Glu --> Val) change.
 Early signs and symptoms can include  Sickle cell anemia (sickle cell disease) is a
irritability, depression, small involuntary disorder of the blood caused by an
movements, poor coordination, and trouble inherited abnormal hemoglobin (the
learning new information or making oxygen-carrying protein within the red
decisions. blood cells). The abnormal hemoglobin
causes distorted (sickled) red blood cells.
The sickled red blood cells are fragile and
prone to rupture. When the number of red
blood cells decreases from rupture
(hemolysis), anemia is the result.
REPAIR ENZYMES

 Continuously working to monitor the DNA molecule for errors.

 SOMETIMES THE REPAIR IS
NOT ACCURATE, AND THE
MISTAKES BECOME PART OF
THE GENETIC MESSAGE. IT
MAY LEAD TO IMPROVEMENT,
NO CHANGE, OR HARMFUL
CHANGE.
 IF THE INCORRECT
PROTEIN IS MADE, THE
RESULTS CAN BE FATAL.
IF THE DAMAGE OCCURS
IN THE SEX CELLS, THE
MISTAKE CAN BE PASSED
FROM ONE GENERATION
TO THE NEXT.