Introduction

Nano scale
Nano phase material
Moore’s law
Nano composites
Synthesis of nano particles
Quantum well/wires/dots
Nanolithography

Applications of Nanotechnology (Sensors)

 www.phys.psu.edu
www.purdue.edu
www.nasa.gov

Semiconducting metal junction formed

An engineered DNA strand pRNA tiny motor by two carbon nanotubes

Nanotechnology is the creation of functional materials, devices and

systems, through the understanding and control of matter at
dimensions in the nanometer scale length (1-100 nm), where new
functionalities and properties of matter are observed and harnessed
for a broad range of applications
 ww.mathworks.com
Fullerenes C60

www.physics.ucr.edu
12,756 Km 22 cm 0.7 nm

1.27 × 107 m 0.22 m 0.7 × 10-9

m

10 millions 1 billion
times smaller times smaller
Nanotechnology, or nanotech, is the study and
design of machines on the molecular and atomic
level. To be considered nanotechnology, these
structures must be anywhere from 1 to 100
nanometers in size. A nanometer is equivalent to
one-billionth of a regular meter, which means
that these structures are extremely small.

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 Manufactured products are made from atoms.
The properties of those products depend on how
those atoms are arranged.

 Ifwe rearrange the atoms in coal we can make

diamond.

 If we rearrange the atoms in sand (and add a few

other trace elements) we can make computer
chips.
 If we rearrange the atoms in dirt, water and air
we can make potatoes.
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 ResearcherK. Eric Drexler was the first person
to popularize this technology in the early
1980’s.

 Drexler was interested in building fully

functioning robots, computers, and motors that
were smaller than a cell. He spent much of the
80’s defending his ideas against critics that
thought this technology would never be possible.

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 Today, the word nanotechnology means
something a bit different. Instead of building
microscopic motors and computers, researchers
are interested in building superior machines
atom by atom.
 Nanotech means that each atom of a machine is
a functioning structure on its own, but when
combined with other structures, these atoms
work together to fulfill a larger purpose.

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Nanotechnology will let us:
 Achieve the ultimate in precision: almost every
atom in exactly the right place.
 Make complex and molecularly intricate
structures as easily and inexpensively as simple
materials (???)
 Reduce manufacturing costs to little more than
the cost of the required raw materials and
energy.

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With 15,342 atoms, this parallel-shaft speed reducer
gear is one of the largest nanomechanical devices ever
modeled in atomic detail.
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 Nano comes from the Greek word for dwarf. The
prefix nano means a factor of one billionth (10-9)
of a meter and can be applied, e.g., to time
(nanosecond), volume (nanoliter), weight
(nanogram) or length (nanometer or nm).

 Inits popular use nano refers to length, and the

nanoscale usually refers to a length from the
atomic level of around 0.1 nm up to 100 nm.

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 Nanostructures or nanomaterials are forms of
matter at the nanoscale.
 To give you an idea how small this is, if you line
up 7 oxygen atoms or 3-4 water molecules, you’ll
get about one nanometer. But that’s hard to
imagine either. How about this: a red blood cell is
approximately 7,000 nm wide. Or, to use a
beaten-to-death comparison: a single hair from
your head is about 50,000 – 100,000 nm thick.
Want more?
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Human hair fragment and a network of
single-walled carbon nanotubes
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 Often thrown together as nanotechnology, we
need to differentiate between science and
technology. There is nano-science, which is the
study of phenomena and manipulation of material
at the nano-scale, in essence, an extension of
existing sciences into the nano-scale.
 Then there is nanotechnology, which is the
design, characterization, production and
application of structures, devices and systems by
controlling shape and size at the nano-scale.

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 Nanotechnology should really be called
nanotechnologies:

The term broadly refers to such fields as biology,

physics or chemistry, any scientific field really, or
a combination thereof, that deals with the
deliberate and controlled manufacturing of
nanostructures.

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 Nanophase materials are materials that have
grain sizes under 100 nanometers. They have
different mechanical and optical properties
compared to the large grained materials of the
same chemical composition.

 Transparency and different transparent colors can

be achieved with nanophase materials by varying
the grain size.

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 Nano-phase metals usually are many times harder
but more brittle than regular metals.
 Nano-phase copper is a super hard material
 Nano-phase aluminum
 Nano-phase iron is iron with a grain size in the
nanometer range. Nanocrystalline iron has a tensile
strength of around 6 GPa, twice that of the best steels.

 Nano-phase ceramics usually are more ductile and

less brittle than regular ceramics.

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 Nano-phase materials are materials with a grain
size in the 1 to 100 nm range. Nano-phase
materials exhibit greatly altered mechanical
properties compared to their normal, large-grained
counterparts with the same chemical composition.

 For example, nanophase metals are up to five (5)

times harder than the normal materials. While
nanophase metals generally become harder and
more brittle, nanophase ceramics become more
ductile.
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 Ina typical nano-phase material, 10 to 50% of the
atoms are in grain boundary regions.

 Nano-phase materials can be made using a number

of methods. The two main methods involve
consolidation of nanometer sized particles or the
creation of small grains using mechanical attrition.
For the first method, small particles are created
using techniques such as inert gas condensation or
through the use of chemical processing. In the
second case, larger particles are milled for a long
period of time to create a very small grain size.
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The observation made in 1965 by
Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel,
that
the number of transistors per square
inch on integrated circuits had doubled
every year since the integrated circuit
was invented. Moore predicted that
this trend would continue for the
foreseeable future.
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In subsequent years, the pace slowed down
a bit, but data density has doubled
approximately every 18 months, and this is
the current definition of Moore's Law, which
Moore himself has blessed.
Most experts, including Moore himself,
expect Moore's Law to hold for at least
another two decades.

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"If all of these thousands of scientists had not
contributed, then Moore's Law would have
seen an increase of 9% every five years, or
something like that, and we would still be
in the Dark Ages electronically speaking,"
thinks Professor Mackintosh.

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 No lagging

 Even Dr Moore is surprised about the longevity of

the observation, but he admits the "law" has
become a self-fulfilling prophesy.

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 "It has gotten to the point where participants in the
semiconducting industry recognise they have to move
along at least at that rate or fall behind
technologically."

 If you are a generation behind in technology, you

suffer not only in performance disadvantage to your
competitors, but also in cost disadvantage

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To fall behind would be a disaster in a
business where making ever more complex
circuits at smaller and smaller dimensions
improves performance and lowers cost.

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A transistor is a basic electronic switch in the chip. It
was invented at Bell Labs in 1947. Every chip needs a
certain number of transistors, and the more there are,
the more chips can do.

 "Practically
anything digital has depended critically on
the swift improvement in chip density," explains
Professor Mackintosh.

 "Wewouldn't have mobile phones, laptops, digital

cameras, some of the advances in medical technology,
electronic games, satellites, GPS, and on and on."
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 End in sight?
 But Moore's Law will not be an effective
benchmark for the next 40 years. It is reaching
technological limits in terms of how dense silicon
chips can be - in other words, how many
transistors can fit on to chips.
 "The industry now believes that we are
approaching the limits of what classical
technology - classical being as refined over the
last 40 years - what that technology can do."

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"Feature size is becoming so small we are
now getting into the realm of quantum
mechanics - atoms thick."
Intel, for instance, will start using 65-
nanometre (billionths of a metre)
manufacturing processes later this year.
Rivals AMD are also moving in the same
direction.
Moore's Law has put powerful gadgets in our
hands.
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 At that level, there are some challenges, and
problems of unwanted current leakage start to
occur.
 "When it gets down to 10 atoms, it is a different
realm of physics altogether and funny things start
to happen," explains Professor Mackintosh.
 Researchers in nano and microelectronics across
the world are putting in a great deal of effort to
develop some sort of substitute or innovation that
will get over this problem.

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 Some are experimenting with nano-structured
novel materials, such as carbon nano-tubes, to
replace transistors and diodes, and quantum
mechanics.
 Intel is also pioneering the use of lasers to
improve the accuracy of circuit lithography.
 Many of the possibilities are still a long way off,
however, not least because complete circuits using
these methods on a large scale are difficult and
expensive to produce.

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 Some of the innovations on the nano-scale are
improving on the existing technology, but in several
other ways.
 "There are other technology enablers that you need
as you continue to scale Moore's Law," explains Josh
Walden, Intel's Northern Ireland fabrication plant
manager.
 "We continue to come up with new materials to
have lower interlayer electrical properties and we
continue to innovate to reduce power and shrink
transistor size to enable Moore's Law."

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 But when Moore's Law is effectively slowed down in
about 10 to 20 years' time, Professor Mackintosh
thinks technology lovers will not necessarily notice
much.
 "As that progress slows down, computer
manufacturers will put effort into the peripherals,
such as better LCD [liquid crystal] displays, better
batteries and so on.
 "Otherwise, innovation will come to a grinding halt
and we won't be buying them anymore."
 Not something the electronics industry or gadget fans
ever wish to see.
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 Nano composites are special type of materials
originating from suitable combination of two or
more such nanoparticles by some appropriate
method, resulting in materials having unique
physical properties.
 These properties obtained by nanomaterials are
consequences of their finite size, dimensionality,
organization and interaction with each other as
well as the surrounding environment.

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 The properties include
 Mechanical Properties
 Increased ductility with no

decrease of strength,
 Scratching resistance

 Optical properties
 Light transmission characteristics

particle size dependent

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Different approaches to attain nano-composite:
 Polymeric nano-composites
 Organic- inorganic systems
 1 D inorganic structures
 3 D inorganic structures
 Layered structures
Organic- inorganic systems
 Nano-composite in stable colloidal form
 Nano-composite with improved physical
properties.

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 Two approaches:
1. Bottom up:
Bottom up

Chemical Self Positional

Synthesis assembly assembly

Particles Crystals films Experimental

Molecules Tubes Atomic/molecular devices

Cosmetics, Displays
Fuel additives
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2. Top- Down:
Top- Down

Lithography Cutting, Etching, Grinding

Electronic devices Precision engineered surface

Quantum wall lasers High quality optical mirrors

Computer chips
MEMS

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 Types of nano-material(CNT)
There are two types of CNT(Carbon nanotube)
(a) Single walled nanotube(One tube: SWNT)
and

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 Types of nanomaterial(CNT)
(b) Multiwalled nanotube(MWNT).

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 Nanotube is a one dimensional fullerene with
cylindrical tube. Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are
molecular scale-tubes of graphite carbon or
allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that
can have a length to diameter ratio greater than
106.
 These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel
properties that make them potentially useful in
many applications in nanotechnology,
electronics, optics and other fields of material
sciences.
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 Properties of (CNT)

 They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique

electrical properties, and are efficient conductors
of heat.
 Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest
materials on earth, in terms of tensile strength
and elastic modulus respectively.
 Bulk carbon nanotubes have already been used as
composite fibers in polymers to improve the
mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of
the bulk product.

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 Properties of (CNT)

 Carbon nanotubes have been used in the

construction of handlebars for mountain bikes
which gives incredible strength yet light weight.
 It is also proposed for possible gene delivery
vehicle and for use in combination with
radiofrequency fields to destroy cancer cells.
 Carbon nanotubes are said to have the strength of
diamond and research is being made into weaving
them into cloths to create stab proof and bullet
proof clothing.

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Quantum well
Quantum wires
Quantum dots

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Quantum confinement in
semiconductors

In an unconfined (bulk) semiconductor, an

electron-hole pair is typically bound within a
characteristic length called the Bohr excitation
radius.
If the electron and hole are constrained further,
then the semiconductor's properties change.
This effect is a form of quantum confinement,
and it is a key feature in many emerging
electronic structures.
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Quantum confined semiconductors include:

• Quantum wells, which confine electrons

or holes in one dimension and allow free
propagation in two dimensions.
• Quantum wires, which confine electrons
or holes in two spatial dimensions and
allow free propagation in the third.
• Quantum dots, which confine electrons
in all three spatial dimensions

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Quantum wells
Quantum wells are formed in semiconductors by having a material, like
gallium arsenide sandwiched between two layers of a material with a wider
band gap, like aluminum arsenide. These structures can be grown by
molecular beam epitaxial or chemical vapor deposition with control of the
layer thickness down to monolayers.

Because of their quasi-two dimensional nature, electrons in quantum wells

have a sharper density of states than bulk materials. As a result quantum
wells are in wide use in diode lasers, specifically blue lasers. They are also
used to make HEMTs (High Electron Mobility Transistors), which are used
in low-noise electronics. Quantum well infrared photo-detectors are also
based on quantum wells, and are used for infrared imaging.

By doping either the well itself, or preferably, the barrier of a quantum well
with donor impurities, a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) may be
formed.

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 Ec


E

Egap for
Egap for
AlxGa1xAs
GaAs

thickness of
GaAs layer
Ev

Schematic energy band diagram of GaAs/GaAlxAs1-x quantum well. An electron

(represented by its wave function ) can be considered as partially confined in the
quantum well of width equal to the GaAs thickness. The barrier height E is equal
to the difference in the energies of the bottom of the conduction band Ec for the two
layer materials. Ev is the energy of the top of the valence band and Egap is the band
gap energy.
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Quantum wires

In condensed matter physics, a quantum wire is an

electrically conducting wire, in which quantum effects are
affecting transport properties. Due to the confinement of
conduction electrons in the transverse direction of the wire,
their transverse energy is quantized into a series of discrete
values E0 ("ground state" energy, with lower value), E1,...

A strip of conducting material about 10 nm or less in width

and thickness that displays quantum mechanical effects is
called Quantum wires.
Real Q. wires include polymer chains, nanowires &
nanotubes.

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One consequence of this quantization is that the
classical formula for calculating the electrical
resistivity of a wire is not valid for quantum wires
(where ρ is the resistivity, l is the length, and A is the
cross-sectional area of the wire).

Instead, an exact calculation of the transverse

energies of the confined electrons has to be
performed to calculate a wire's resistance. Following
from the quantization of electron energy, the
resistance is also found to be quantized.

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Scanning electron micrograph of electrodeposited FeCo nanowires
(the polycarbonate matrix in which the wires were embedded has
been completely dissolved).
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Quantum dots

A quantum dot is a semiconductor whose excitons

are confined in all three spatial dimensions.
Q. Dots are semiconducting crystals of nm
dimension.
Different sized quantum dots emit different color light
due to quantum confinement.

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 Illustration of a cross sectional view of Si quantum dots
formed in a glass matrix via ion implantation. Note that the
random arrangement and spherical shape of the quantum dot
particles is expected for quantum dots implanted in an
amorphous media.
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Scanning electron micrograph of quantum dot patterns on a GaSb
surface induced by Ar-ion sputtering with an ion energy of 500 eV.
The dots show a hexagonal ordering with a characteristic wavelength
that depends on ion energy. The insets show the corresponding
distribution of the nearest-neighbor distance.
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 Nanolithography
 Nanolithography is the art and science of etching,
writing, or printing at the microscopic level,
where the dimensions of characters are on the
order of nanometers (units of 10 -9 meter, or
millionths of a millimeter).

 This includes various methods of modifying

semiconductor chips at the atomic level for the
purpose of fabricating integrated circuits.

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 Nanolithography
 Instruments used in nanolithography include the
scanning probe microscope (SPM) and the atomic
force microscope (ATM).

 The SPM allows surface viewing in fine detail

without necessarily modifying it. Either the SPM or
the ATM can be used to etch, write, or print on a
surface in single-atom dimensions.

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Nanolithography

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 Thermal DPN, which uses a heated AFM cantilever whose tip is coated
with a solid 'ink'. When the tip is hot enough, the ink melts and flows
onto the substrate. No deposition occurs when the tip is cold, so
imaging without any unintended deposition is possible. b, Electro pen
nanolithography on an octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS)-coated surface.
The terminal methyl group of the OTS is converted to a reactive COOH-
terminated surface (OTSox) by applying a voltage between the
conducting AFM tip and the conducting silicon substrate in a humid
environment. 'Ink' molecules are delivered from the 'inked tip' to the
reactive OTSox surface, forming a second layer in the same sweep. No
second layer is formed on the methyl-terminated regions. c, Writing
mechanism of the Nano Fountain Pen. Molecular ink fed from the
reservoir forms a liquid–air interface at the annular aperture of the
volcano tip. Molecules are transferred by diffusion from the interface
to a substrate and a water meniscus is formed by capillary
condensation.

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 Nanolithography
Types of lithography:

There are four types of lithography.

1. Electron beam lithography
2. X-ray lithography
3. Dip pen Lithography
4. Optical lithography

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 Optical lithography
 Opticallithography is the sequence of activities
needed for transfer a pre-designed pattern to
the surface of a semiconductor wafer.

 The pattern can be registered on a mask, or

supplied directly from a computer to a scanning
radiation source.

 Photoresistis a photo-sensitive resistant coating

used to register an image on the desired surface
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 Optical Lithography

The majority of lithographic equipment for

IC fabrication is optical equipment using
ultraviolet light.
There are usually two optical exposure
methods, (1) Shadow printing (2) projection
printing. In shadow printing, the mask and
the wafer may be in direct contact, as in
contact printing and in close proximity as in
proximity printing. 11/22/2018 65
Optical Lithography

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 light

mask

lens

resist

silicon wafer

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Contact printing gives very high resolution
(1 micrometer) but suffers from major
drawback caused by dust particles or silicon
specks accidentally embedded into the
mask, thereby causing permanent damage
to the mask and defects in the wafer.
Proximity printing is not as prone to particle
damage.
The minimum line-width that can be
printed, lm in shadow printing is roughly
given by

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 lm = (λ g)1/2……………………………………….(1)

 where λ is the wavelength of the exposure

radiation and g is the gap between the mask and
the wafer and includes the thickness of the resist.
For typical values of X( 0.4 micrometer) and g ( 50
micrometer) , lm is on the order of 4.5
micrometer. Equation (1) says that the minimum
line-width can be improved by reducing the
wavelength or the gap g.

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 In order to overcome the problems associated with
shadow printing, projection printing exposure tools
have been developed to project an image of the mask
patterns onto a resist coated wafer many cm away
from the mask. The small image area is scanned or
stepped over the wafer to cover the entire surface.
The figure shows the various ways to project and scan
the image. The resolution of a projection system is
given by

lm = λ/NA (2)

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where λ is the wavelength and NA is the
numerical aperture given by
NA = n Sin q where n is the refractive
index of the imaging media and q is the
half angle of the cone of light converging
to a point image at the wafer.
The depth of focus is,
Z = ± lm/ 2Sin q = ± nλ / [2(NA)2]
Resolution can be enhanced by reducing λ
and this explains that shorter wavelength
is preferred in optical lithography.

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 Optical lithography - Steps
required for a pattern transfer

(7) Photoresist removal

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 resist
insulating insulating
layer layer
resist
coat
source gate drain

align, expose
and
develop

resist
insulating
etch of the layer
insulating layer
source gate drain and
resist strip

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 Various applications of nanotechnology are as
following:
 Sunglasses using protective and antireflective
ultrathin polymer coatings.
 Scratch resistant coatings that are transparent,
ultrathin, easy to maintenance, well suited for the
daily use and reasonably priced.
 Windproof and waterproof cloths preventing
wrinkling or staining and guarding against
electrostatic discharges.

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 Sunscreens and cosmetics based on nanotech are
widely used because of their purity and
cleanliness.
 Sports equipments like tennis rackets with carbon
nanotube have improved torsion and flex
resistance. Long lasting tennis balls are made up
of nanocoated inner core clay which increases the
lifetime of conventional balls.
 Automobile fuel lines made with carbon nanotubes
that inhibit static electricity and reduce the risk
of explosions.

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 Intelligent nanocoatings for windows that reflect
solar heat in the summer and transmit in winter.
 Very thin permanent magnets with high energy
products used for the high density magnetic
recording.
 Quantum wells, quantum dots and quantum wires
have quantum confinement and are produced from
semiconductor nanomaterials which are used as
computer storage materials with high density.

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 Nano materials have a large volume function of
grain boundaries or large ratio between surface
area and volume. This property is used to get
improved mechanical properties like higher
hardness in ceramics.
 Hydrogen storage devices.

 Nanomaterialshave very high magneto resistance

.This property is used in the magnetic storage
devices.
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