Human Resource Management:

Gaining a Competitive Advantage

Chapter 04

The Analysis and Design of Work

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights4–1

reserved.
 Learning Objectives
After this session, you should be able to:
1. Analyze an organization’s structure & work flow process and
identify the output, activities, and inputs in the production of a
product/service.
2. Understand different approaches to job design and the trade-offs
among them.
3. Discuss the psychological states that motivate employees and the
job characteristics that produce them.
4. Understand the importance of job analysis in SHRM.
5. Discuss various methods of job analysis & choosing the right
method for various HRM activities.
6. Describe the contents of an effective job description.

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 Job-Related Terms
• Job
 A group/set of work-related
responsibilities, duties & tasks whose
completion furthers org objectives.
Job
• Position
 The different responsibilities/duties
performed by a single employee.
• Most jobs usually have > 1 position Position Position Position

• Job Family
 A group of individual jobs with
similar characteristics.

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Job-Related Terms... TDR
• Task
 A specific work activity carried out to achieve a specific
purpose.
 i.e., a basic aspect of work that is a logical & necessary step in
performing a job duty.
• Duty
 A set of tasks performed by a jobholder.
 …i.e., one or more tasks that constitute a significant activity
performed in a job.
• Responsibility
 One or more duties that identify and describe the major
purpose or reason for the job’s existence.

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 Job-Related Terms... KSAO
• Knowledge
 Expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education.
• Skill
 Competence or proficiency acquired through deliberate, systematic &
sustained effort to smoothly carry out complex activities re ideas, people,
and things.
 A specific developed ability.
• Ability
 Natural or acquired talent, capacity, competence, proficiency, etc., that
enables an individual to successfully perform an act or task.
 A person’s competence to perform an observable behaviour.
• Other
 ‘Other attributes’

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 Job-Related Terms
• 1. Job Description
 Statement of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities
(TDRs) of a job to be performed.

• 2. Job Specification
 Statement of the needed knowledge, skills, and abilities
(KSAs) of the person who is to perform the job.

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 Work-Flow Analysis & Organization Structure
• Work-Flow Analysis
 Identifies the outputs of work (quality/quantity specs) and analyses the
processes and inputs needed to produce the outputs
 An analysis of work outputs, work processes, & work inputs.
 Provides a means for managers to understand the tasks required to produce a
product/service and the skills necessary to perform those tasks. [Fig 4.1]
• Work-flow design
 The process of analysing the tasks necessary for the production of a product
or service before allocating & assigning (bundling) these tasks to a particular
job category or person.
 Enables the bundling of various tasks into discrete jobs
 Provides a longitudinal overview of the dynamic relationships by which
inputs are converted into outputs [An ‘open systems’ approach (I/P/O)]
• Job Design…
 The process of defining the way work will be performed and the tasks that
will be required in a given job;
 The actual “bundling” of various tasks into discrete jobs
• Work-flow design, job design, and job analysis are inter-related…

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Developing a Work-Unit Activity Analysis (Fig 4.1)

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 Organization Structure
• Organization Structure:
 Refers to the formal configuration of individuals and groups with
respect to the allocation of authority and responsibilities within
organizations.
 Displayed via Org Charts showing vertical reporting relationships &
horizontal functional responsibilities
 Provides a cross-sectional overview of the static relationship between
individuals and units that create organizational outputs;
 Is the way an organization chooses to...
 (i) Divide the overall work into subunits that can assign tasks to
individuals/groups (departmentalization) &
 (ii) Coordinate the subunits for the completion of the overall work.
 Org structure is the result of organisational design.
• Organisational Design
 The process of coordinating the structural dimensions (“building
blocks”) of organisations in the most effective manner.
 i.e., departmentalization; centralization; etc.

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 Organizational Structure & Design
• Organisational Design…
 Two dimensions of structure are…
 1. Departmentalization
– The basis on which jobs are grouped into coherent units (functional/workflow similarity)
 2. Centralization
– The degree to which decision-making resides at the top vs. being pushed down to lower
levels (decentralization).
 Results in two generic structures:
 Mechanistic structures (Tall)
– Hi specialization; rigid departmentalization; centralization
 Organic structures (Flat)
– Lo specialization (enriched jobs); empowered teams; decentralization
• Structure & Strategy
 Business strategy determines (job design &) the most appropriate structure
 Cost leadership strategy = mechanistic (bureaucratic) structure
 Differentiation strategy = organic structure

• Two common types of organizational structure are:

 1. The functional organization (mechanistic)
 2. The divisional (self-contained) organization (organic)

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4–11
 Functional Organization Structure

President

VP Research VP Operations VP Human VP Marketing VP Finance

Resources

Simple structure; departmentalised by functions/tasks; See Fig 4.2 (txt)

 The Self-Contained Organization Structure

Chief Executive
Officer

Chief Financial VP Research

Officer

Division Manager Division Manager Division Manager

Asia North America Europe

VP Human VP Operations VP Sales and

Resources Marketing

Departmentalised by output/product (workflow), i.e., markets served; AKA product

org; market-oriented org; divisional org; See also Fig 4.3, & 4.5 (text)
 Pros & Cons of Structural Configurations
Functional
• Functional departmentalization
• High level of centralization
• High efficiency; scale economies
• Inflexible; narrow perspectives
• Insensitive to subtle differences
across products, regions, and
clients
• Clear career paths
Divisional
• Workflow departmentalization
• Low level of centralization
• Semi-autonomous; low efficiency
• Flexible and innovative
• Sensitive to subtle differences
across products, regions, and
clients
• Career advancement issues
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 Organization Structure and the Nature of Jobs

•1. Functional Structures

 Mechanistic
 Jobs need to be narrowly defined, highly
specialized, and people need to work alone.
•2. Divisional Structures
 Organic
 Jobs need to be more holistic, team-based, and
have greater decision-making authority.

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 Job Design and Re-design
• Job Design…
 The process of defining the way work will be performed
and the tasks that will be required in a given job.
 The actual “bundling of various tasks into discrete job

• Job Re-design…
 The process of changing the tasks or the way work is
performed in an existing job.
 Requires a thorough understanding of the job as it exits (Job
analysis) and its place in the work unit’s work-flow process (work-
flow analysis)

• Job design/redesign done most effectively by

understanding the trade-offs between design approaches.
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 Approaches to Job Design
• 4 Approaches to Job Design:
 Mechanistic; Motivational; Biological & Perceptual-motor
• 1. Mechanistic Approach:
 Has its roots in classical organizational theory/design
– Classical industrial engineering
 Scientific Management (‘Taylorism’)
– The earliest & best known form of the mechanistic approach
– Examined management at the micro-level of work design:
• Promoted ‘one-best-way’ to complete task/job
• Proposed optimizing/simplifying jobs to ↑ productivity
 Focuses on ID the simplest way to structure work to max efficiency
 Design jobs around the concepts of:
– Task specialization
– Skill simplification
– Repetition
– Low levels of authority and discretion…

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 Mechanistic & Motivational Approaches
 Gives rise to ‘Cost Leadership Strategy’
 Competes on productivity/efficiency
– Functional organizations
 Functional Organizational Structures
– Narrowly defined, highly specialised jobs
– Tall hierarchy
– Narrow span of control
– Close control over subordinates; etc.
• 2. Motivational (Organic) Approach:
 Has its roots in neoclassical organizational theory/design
– Neo-classical organization design
• Industrial/organizational psychology; motivational theories
• Emerged as a reaction to the mechanistic approach to job design
– Promoted it own “the one best” way to perform work/↑ productivity
• Job complexity
 Focuses on increasing job complexity thru the job characteristics that affect:
– (i) the psychological meaning of work, and
– (ii) the motivational potential of job design
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Motivational (Organic) Approach
 Design jobs around the concepts of:
– Job enlargement → horizontal expansion
– Job enrichment → vertical expansion
 Gives rise to ‘Differentiation Strategy’
 Competes on innovation/added value
– Self-contained; divisional; (organic) organizations
 Divisional/Organic Organizational Structures
– Broadly defined, holistic jobs
– Flat hierarchy
– Wide span of control
– Loose control over subordinates; etc.

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 Job Enrichment
• Job Enrichment (Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory)
 Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful tasks and duties
(vertical expansion) to make the work more rewarding or satisfying.
 Providing opportunities for achievement, recognition, growth,
responsibility, and performance.
• Job Enrichment Factors
 1. Increasing the level of difficulty and responsibility of the job
 2. Allowing EEs to retain more authority and control over work
outcomes
 3. Providing unit/individual job performance reports directly to EEs
 4. Adding new tasks to the job that require training and growth
 5. Assigning individuals specific tasks, enabling them to use their
particular competencies or skills

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 The Job Characteristics Model
• The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
 A job design theory purporting that three psychological
states…
 1. Experiencing meaningfulness of the work performed
 2. Responsibility for work outcomes, and
 3. Knowledge of the results of the work performed
 …of a jobholder result in improved work performance,
internal motivation, and lower absenteeism and
turnover.
 Five core job dimensions (characteristics) produce the
three psychological states…

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 Job Dimensions & Psychological States (cont.)

• Job Characteristics • Psychological • Job

 Skill variety States Outcomes
 Task identity  Meaningfulness of  Improved work
the work performed performance
 Task significance
 Increased
 Responsibility for Internal
 Autonomy
work outcomes motivation
 Lower
 Knowledge of the absenteeism
 Feedback results of the and turnover
work performed.

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 Job Characteristics (cont.)
1. Skill variety:
The degree to which a job entails a variety of different activities, which demand
the use of a number of different skills and talents by the jobholder
2. Task identity:
The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece
of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome
3. Task significance:
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other
people, whether in the immediate organization or in the external environment
4. Autonomy:
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and
discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out
5. Feedback:
The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in
the individual being given direct and clear information about the effectiveness of
his or her performance

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Trade-Offs Among Different Approaches to Job
Design
Job Design Approach Positive Outcomes
Higher job satisfaction
Higher motivation
Motivational Greater job involvement
Lower absenteeism
Decreased training time
Higher utilization levels
Mechanistic Lower likelihood of error
Less chance of mental overload
and stress
Less physical effort
Less physical fatigue
Biological Fewer health complaints
Fewer medical incidences
Lower absenteeism
Higher job satisfaction
Lower likelihood of error
Lower likelihood of accidents
Perceptual-Motor Less chance of mental overload
and stress
Lower training time
Higher utilization levels
Negative Outcomes
Increased training time
Lower utilization levels
Greater likelihood of error
Greater chance of mental overload
and stress
Lower job satisfaction
Lower motivation
Less job involvement
Higher absenteeism
Higher financial costs because
of changes in equipment or
job environment
Lower job satisfaction
Lower motivation
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 Job Analysis
• Job Analysis…
 (i) The process of getting detailed information about jobs; OR
 (ii) The process of obtaining information about jobs by determining
the duties, tasks, or activities of jobs; OR
 (iii) A systematic procedure for gathering, documenting, and
analyzing information about the content, context, and requirements
of the job.
 HR managers use the data to develop job descriptions and job
specifications that are used by other HRM functions.
– Recruiting, selection, etc.
• Job Analysis is the ‘building block’ of HRM functions.
 ALL HRM functions/activities require some type of information
gleaned from job analysis.
• Job analysis is concerned with describing an existing job!

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 The Importance of Job Analysis to HRM
Managers
Performance
Work Design/Redesign Appraisal

HR Planning Job Evaluation

Job Analysis

Career Planning
Selection

Training and
Development
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1. Human Resource Planning:
 JA provides info on the KSAO/TDR of present and future jobs.
 Info used to compare similarities/differences among jobs: (i) required v actual EE
skills; and (ii) the nature of present v future jobs.
2. Job Re-design*:
 JA info on the TDRs/KSAOs of the existing job needed prior to re-
designing it to make it more efficient or effective.
3. Recruiting:
 JA specifies the KSAOs needed to perform the TDRs of a job & the
types of EEs to recruit.
4. Selection:
 JA provides detailed & complete info on the TDRs & KSAOs for jobs.
 To design tests that measure the aptitudes/abilities (& examine the qualifications)
of applicants to perform successfully in a given job.
5. Orientation:
 JDs inform EEs of required tasks/duties & acceptable standards of
performance.
6. Training & Development:
...
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  JD provides info on the TDR of a job and the KSAO needed
 Training bridges any gap between the two; JS identify training program objectives
7. Performance Management/Appraisal:
 JA a mechanism for choosing appraisal criteria; specifies necessary
job behaviours or results (performance standards) EEs must meet.
 Identifies behaviours/results that distinguish effective from ineffective performance.
8. Career Planning:
 JD provides info for comparing jobs at different levels to chart the
logical progression of an EE from one job to another.
9. Compensation:
 JA info used to conduct JE to determine the relative worth of jobs &
pay rates.
10. Employee Health & Safety:
 JD documents potential workplace hazards so that steps can be
taken to protect EEs.
11. I/Labour Relations:
 JD provides basis for bargaining over pay rates, working conditions,
and ways in which certain jobs are done
 Unions prefer narrow/closely defined JD; management wants flexible/broad JD
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 The Importance of Job Analysis to Line
Managers
Line Managers must…
 1. Have detailed info about all the jobs in their work
group to understand the work-flow process.
 2. Understand the job requirements to make intelligent
hiring decisions.
 3. Understand the tasks required in every job for
effective evaluation and satisfactory performance of
each EE.
 4. Be aware of potentially hazardous jobs and create a
climate in which EEs feel free to interrupt the
production process if danger manifests itself.

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 Methods of Job Analysis
• Methods of Job Analysis can be
classified into four basic types:
Observation
Interview
Observation-Interview
Questionnaires
• Other Methods
The Occupational Information Network
- O*NET
• No “one best way!”

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Observation Methods
• Observation methods can be used independently
or in combination with other JA methods.
• Three Types of Observation Methods:
 Direct Observation
 Work Methods Analysis
 Critical Incident Technique
• They employ the same basic technique, but they
differ in terms of:
 Who does the observing,
 What is observed, and
 How it is observed

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 Observation Methods
1. Direct Observation
 Analyst/Observer:
 Watches worker perform duties; records what is observed
 Everything is observed:
– What is accomplished; equipment is used; work environment; etc.
 Used mainly to describe simple, repetitive, manual, short-cycle jobs
 Pros
 Useful in ID health & safety hazards in certain jobs.
 Can provide reasonably complete picture of manual, repetitive jobs
 Cons
 1. Cannot capture mental aspects of jobs
 2. Provide little info re personal requirements for various jobs
 3. Limited to manual, repetitive jobs
 4. May create suspicion among workers!

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 Observation Methods
2. Work Methods Analysis
 Sophisticated observation method used by industrial engineers to
describe manual/repetitive production jobs
 e.g., factory and assembly-line jobs.
 Two types: time-and-motion studies & micro-motion analysis.
2.1 Time-and-motion studies:
 Engineer observes & records each activity of a worker
 Uses stopwatch to note the time it takes to perform each element of the job.

2.2 Micro-analysis:
 Movie camera used to record workers’ activities;
 Films analysed to discover acceptable ways of accomplishing tasks; &
 Set standards on how long certain tasks should take.
Pros
 Serves as a database for setting performance standards
 Useful for developing training programmes and setting pay rates.
Cons
 Same as with Direct Observation…
 May create suspicion among workers!
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 Observation Methods
• 3. Critical Incident Technique
 Involves the observation & recording of examples of particularly
effective or ineffective behaviour (in terms of results produced)
 Job tasks are identified (in retrospect) that are critical to job
success.
 The job analyst writes five to ten important task statements for
each job under study.
 Pros
 Captures both routine & non-routine aspects of behaviour
 Especially useful for developing PA instruments that seek to evaluate EEs
according to acceptable or unacceptable job behaviour.
 Cons
 Lengthy process of data (incident) collection for adequate description.
 Classifying data into usable JDs can be difficult because incidents can be
quite dissimilar.
 Critical incidents (job tasks) can also be collected via interviews
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 Interview Methods
• Structured/Unstructured Interviews
 Involve discussions between job analysts (other interviewers) and
job occupants or subject-matter experts.
• 1. EEs interviewed separately or in groups
 Supplemented by info from supervisors
• 2. Interview small panel of experts
 Long-time EEs/supervisors familiar with the jobs
 Interviews called ‘technical conferences’

• Pros
 1. Structured format
 1.1. ↑ likelihood that all aspects of a job will be covered
 1.2. Enables collection of comparable data from interviewees (eases classification)
 2. Provides reasonably complete data for JDs, when used properly
 3. Can be used to identify training needs
• Cons
 1. Can be time-consuming & costly (if many EEs)
 2. May create suspicion among workers

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 Questionnaire Methods

• Questionnaires vary in their degree of structure

 From open-ended q to specific-response alternatives
• Can be completed by EEs individually or by job analysts for
a group of EEs.
 Often used when input from a large number of EEs desired and
speed and cost are major considerations.
• However, questionnaire methods...
 1. Assume a certain level of reading competence
 2. Take time & some familiarity with the job to develop Q
 3. Take time, effort, and expertise to code/analyze data collected
• Questionnaire Methods/Approaches:
 1. Job/Task Inventories or Checklists
 2. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PQ) methods…

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 Questionnaire Methods
• 1. Job/Task Inventory (Checklist)
 A structured Q of org-specific job behaviours - tasks &
descriptions [&/or qualifications] used for identifying the
components of jobs.
 The goal: a comprehensive list of task statements applicable to all jobs
 EE required to check/rate (on a 5-p scale) each behaviour
necessary to a particular job re Time Spent, Frequency,
Importance.
 e.g., Item #159: “Set objectives for a department or unit of the
company.”
 Pros
 Very useful in selection, training, & HRP because of detailed info on job content,
EE behaviour & qualification.
 Has all the advantages of highly structured Q…
– Quantifiable; fast data collection; comparability; admin ease, etc.
 Cons
 Specific inventory must be constructed for each job; time-consuming

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 Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
• 2. Position Analysis Questionnaire – PAQ
 A standardized Q containing 194 items representing work
behaviours, work conditions, or job characteristics that are
‘generalizable’ across a wide variety of jobs.
 by means of a five-point scale, seeks to determine the degree to which different
tasks are involved in performing a particular job.
 Organized into six divisions/dimensions:
 1. information input; 2. mental processes; 3. work output
 4. relationships with other persons; 5. job context
 6. other characteristics
 Analyst determines whether each item applies to the job being
analyzed.
 Rates each item on six scales:
– Extent of use, importance to job, amount of time, etc

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 PAQ
• Pros:
 Applicable to a wide variety of jobs
 Quantifiable
 Results can be obtained quickly
 Data on jobs easily compared
 Useful in career planning/progression between jobs
 Computer packages available to PAQ users
 Pay survey, JE, performance appraisal, training, selection, etc.
• Cons:
 Does not provide descriptive summary of job or listing
of related tasks/duties
 profiles job in terms of the degree to which certain job elements
are present
 May not distinguish between similar jobs since it is
designed to be generally applicable to virtually all jobs
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O*NET and Job Analysis
• Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
 A systematic occupational classification structure
based on interrelationships of job tasks and
requirements.
 Contains standardized and comprehensive
descriptions of twenty-thousand jobs.
• O*NET Database
 An online database of all DOT occupations plus an
update of over 3,500 additional DOT occupations.
 Data are collected and published continuously.

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 The Job Description
• Job Analysis also includes organising and
summarising the information into a set of Job
Requirements (JD & JS) – the ‘job description’
• No rigid format/standard for presenting a JD, but it
typically includes the following elements/info:
 1. Job Title/ID
 2. Job Summary/Statement
 3. Relationships and Supervision
 4. Authority
 5. Tasks, Duties, Responsibilities (TDRs) [Essential Functions]
 6. Performance Standards
 7. Working Conditions and Physical Environment
 8. Social Environment
 9. Job Specifications (KSAO)

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 Job Descriptions - Key Elements
• 1. Job Title & Identification
 Indicates job duties and organizational level
 Distinguishes job from all other jobs
• 2. Job Summary/Statement
 Brief listing of major job duties
• 3. Essential Functions (TDRs)
 Indicate the tasks, duties and responsibilities and
results to be accomplished
• 4. Job Specifications
 Skills/personal attributes required to perform the job
(& physical demands of the job)

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1
Job Description for an Employment Assistant

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Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• 3. Job Duties or Essential Functions Section
 Statements of job duties that:
 Are arranged in order of importance that indicate the weight,
or value, of each duty; weight of a duty is gauged by the
percentage of time devoted to it.
 Stress the responsibilities that duties entail and the results to
be accomplished.
 Indicate the tools and equipment used by the employee in
performing the job.
 Should ‘comply with law’ by listing only the essential
functions of the job to be performed.

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1
Job Description for an Employment Assistant (cont’d)

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 Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Specifications Section
 Personal qualifications an individual must possess in
order to perform the duties and responsibilities
 The skills required to perform the job:
– Education or experience, specialized training, personal
traits or abilities, interpersonal skills or specific behavioral
attributes, and manual dexterities.

 [The physical demands of the job:

– Walking, standing, reaching, lifting, talking, and the
condition and hazards of the physical work environment]

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1
Job Description for an Employment Assistant (cont’d)

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END:TEM

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