- generally called Saccharides, a Greek word,

meaning sugars.
- An organic compounds abundant in plants and
widespread in nature. It forms the basis of the
energy cycle on Earth.
- They are synthesized from water and carbon
dioxide by photosynthesis.
- Measured as Kcal or Joules.
- About 50-60% of energy needs come from
carbs: and as much as 80% in low-income
families.
Chemical Nature
- it contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
- The ration of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1 as in
water molecule, hence the word carbo-
hydrate referring to hydrated carbon.
According to digestibility, carbohydrates are
simply grouped into:

a. Digestible (sugars, starches, dextrin, and

glycogen)

b.Partially digestible (galactogens,

mannosans, inulin and pentosans)

c. Indigestible carbohydrates: (cellulose and

hemicellulose)
 - Only the digestible carbohydrates namely
sugars and starches, supply energy.
- Upon complete hydrolysis, 1 gram yields 4
kcal.
- Indigestible carbohydrates like the dietary
fibers (cellulose, hemicellulose) are not
broken down by the human beings in the
intestines into glucose units due to lack of
specific enzymes : therefore they do not yield
energy.
Monosaccharides

1. Glucose also known as dextrose or grape

sugar is the most important sugar in human
metbolism, hence, the other name for it is the
“physiologic sugar’.
It is found free in nature in fruits, honey, corn,
syrup, sweet corn and certain roots.
Glucose is the principal product of hydrolysis
from starch and cane sugar. In the body, it is
formed from starch digestion; in
metabolism, glucose is the circulating
carbohydrate.
All other sugars are converted into glucose
and it is oxidized in the cells to release
energy.
2. Fructose is the sweetest of all sugars and is
found preformed in honey, ripe fruits and some
vegetables.
It is hydrolyzed from sucrose and inulin.
It is changed to glucose in the liver and intestine
and glucose is the form that is oxidizable to yield
energy. Fructose is also called “levulose” because
it is a levorotatory form of sugar.
3. Galactose is not found free in nature but is
hydrolyzed from lactose or milk sugars. it is
changed to glucose in human metabolism,
which in turn enters the Krebs cycle to release
energy. The reactrion is reversible: glucose can
be converted to galactose to form milk sugar or
lactose in breast milk.

Galactose is a component of some compound

lipids called the cerebrosides, which are found
in the brain and nerve tissues.
4. Sugar Alcohols are monosaccharides that do
not follow the general formula of the hexoses.
Two important sugar alcohols, mannitol and
sorbitol both have the same sweetening power
or glucose.
Sorbitol is absorbed more slowly than the
other monosaccharide and it has been used to
delay the onset of hunger.
Mannitol yields only half the calories per gram
(2 kcal/g) as glucose. It is poorly absorbed in the
intestines and is used more as a food
ingredients as drying agent.
5. Pentoses (ribose and ribulose) are five-
carbon chains of simple sugars or
monosaccharides that are found in
nucleic acids of meat and seafoods in
bound form.
In the body, they are important
components of nucleic acids and some
co-enzymes.
Disaccharides
1. Sucrose-is sometimes called cane sugar or beet
sugar since it is commercially prepared from
sugarcane and sugar beets.
It is also abundant in molasses, maple syrup,
sorghum and some fruits.
Sucrose is the most common form of sugar in
cooking and in table service, hence it is called
“table sugar”. It is hydrolyzed into 1 molecule of
glucose and 1 molecule of fructose. Equal amounts
of these two sugars are a mixture known as “invert
sugar”.
2. Maltose- is also called “malt sugar” because it
is derived from the digestion of starch with the
aid of the enzyme, diastase, found in sprouting
grains. Maltose does not occur free in nature
but can be hydrolyzed by amylases from
starches of cereals grains.
A molecule of maltose yields 2 molecules of
glucose.
In the intestines, maltose is not readily
fermented by bacteria and this is beneficial for
infant feeding. Usually maltose is combined with
dextrin (dextrimaltose) for infant formulas.
3. Lactose or milk sugar is found in milk and milk
products. It is hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose
and is slowly digested compared to the other
disaccharides. It is the least sweet among common
sugars, only 1/6 as sweet as sucrose or table sugar.
In pregnant mothers, lactose, lactose can be formed
from glucose. It may be excreted as lactose in the
urine of pregnant mothers.
Polysaccharides
Important in the study of food and nutrition are
starch, dextrin, glycogen, hemicelluloses and
cellulose. The first 3 are digestible
polysaccharides and the last two are indigestible.
All of them are composed of glucose units. As a
group they are not water-soluble compared to
mono and disaccharides.
1. Starch- is the world’s most abundant and
cheap form of carbohydrate. It is the storage
form of carbohydrates in plants: grains, seeds,
tubers, roots and unripe fruits.
Starch molecules have two components:
amylose, which is a straight chain of glucose
units amylopectin, branched chain.
Complete hydrolysis of starch yields glucose
units while partial hydrolysis yields dextrin and
maltose.
2. Dextrin- is an intermediate product of starch
digestion or is formed from partial hydrolysis of
starch. The action of dry heat on starch 9as in
toasting of bread) produces dextrin.

3. Glycogen- is sometimes called “animal starch

because it is the storage form of carbohydrate in
the body, chiefly in the liver and muscles. It is
more higly branched than amylopectin and its
molecular weight reaches up to four million. In
food sources, glycogen is limited to the liver and
in oysters and only minutes after slaughter of the
animal.
Glycogen stores are readily converted into
lactic acid. Normally, only 355g (or close to
1/3 kg.) of glycogen is present in the body,
hence a constant supply of carbohydrate is
needed. Excess amount of glucose beyond the
limits of glycogen storage will be converted
into body fat and stored in adipose tissues.
4. Dietary Fiber
Fiber, also called roughage, is the indigestible
part of food. The most well known dietary fiber
is cellulose. Hemicellulose, lignin, pectin,
mucilage and gums constitute the rest. All these
are complex carbohydrates that cannot be
digested by man due to the lack of the enzyme
that can split the beta-linkages in these complex
polysaccharides.
Functions of Dietary Fiber
Provides bulk, acts as a broom in our
digestive system tract to prevent constipation
and recently to prevent diverticula's diseases,
reduce incidence of colon cancer, reduce blood
cholesterol level and decrease mucosal
absorption. The latter is important in the
management of diabetic diets.
An average of 20 to 30g. of fiber daily is
recommended by the National Cancer and
dietetic associations for good health. Increase
in water intake when increasing fiber intake.
Cellulose- is a polysaccharide composed of many
glucose units in a staright chain like starch.
However, the linkage between the glucose units
is the betatype ( glucose molecules in starch are
hooked together by alpha-linkages).
Hemicellulose- is also indigestible polysaccharide
found in agar, pectins, woody fibers, leaves and
stems, but is less polymerized than cellulose and
can be hydrolyzed by dillute acids. It is composed
of other sugars besides glucose. Pectin, a soluble
fiber is found in some fruits and vegetables.
Pectin and Agar-agar are soluble fibers
composed wholly of galactose units, but they
do not suplly calories since they are not
hydrolyzed into simple galactose units. Their
importance in food is as thickening or binding
agents and to form food gels.
Psyllium- is a soluble fiber obtained from a seed
of a plant known as genus plantago ovata.
It is composed of 80% dietary fiber and small
amounts of protein, fat, vitamins and
minerals.
 FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATE
1. Chief Source
Body cells require a steady and a constant supply
of energy mainly as glucose and its intermediate
products. Although fat is also an energy source, it
is in storage form and not immediately available.
A gram of carbohydrate yields 4 kcal. There is
only a total pf 10g of glucose circulating in the
blood or a constant of 70 to 100 ml blood. This
glucose level must be kept constant and ready
for utilization.
2. Cheap and Main Energy Food
Carbohydrate foods mainly as cereal grains,
sugars, most fruits and starchy vegetables
contribute at least 50% of total energy needs of
people. As staples in the diet, they are low cost
and widely distributed around the world.
Starches and sugars are readily digestible.
Plants are the primary manufacturer of
carbohydrates by Photosynthesis.
3. Protein Sparer
The energy need of the body is given first
priority over body-building needs. Thus, if
carbohydrate foods are not adequately
supplied, protein will be repairing tissues. To
“save” or “spare” protein for this unique
experimentally observed that protein
utilization is improved if carbohydrate is
simultaneously present.
4.Regulator of Fat Metabolism
Carbohydrates prevent incomplete oxidation of
fat. If energy is not sufficiently supplied by
carbohydrate sources, fat catabolism is excessive
at a rate the body cannot handle such as that
ketone bodies are accumulated and acidosis
occurs.
5. Sole Energy Source for the Brain and Nerve
Tissues
The brain and nerve tissues utilize only glucose
for energy. A constant supply of glucose must
reach these important tissues. Otherwise, lack of
glucose or oxygen needed for the oxidation of
glucose to release energy will result in an
irreversible damage to the brain.
6. Storage Form of Energy as Glycogen
Unlike fat storage in adipose tissues, glycogen
provides immediate source of energy. About
1/3 of a kilogram (335gm) of glycogen is
stored in the liver and muscle tissues. Muscle
glycogen is used for exercise or muscle activity
without changing to free blood glucose.
Important for the heart muscle where
glycogen is an immediate source of contractile
energy.
MALNUTRTION:
In the severe deficiencies as in the case of famine
and prolonged starvation, the ill effects of a limited
total food intake result in multiple nutrient
deficiencies, particularly protein energy malnutrition
(PEM).
The first chemical signs are decreased blood sugar
level, loss of weight, and retarded growth for infants
and children. Excessive intake of calories, whether
from carbohydrates, fats or protein, obesity or
adiposity becomes the problem.
If the intake of fat and protein is normal, but the
carbohydrates intake is lower than the
recommended level to supply caloric requirements,
ketosis or acidosis occurs.
.
 FOOD SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES
sugar, cereal grains, and their products (rice,
corn, oat, breads, and other baked goods,
noodles, or pasta, etc). Root crops, starchy
vegetables and dried legumes.
Fruits and milk also contribute good amounts of
carbohydrates.
Additional carbohydrates can be obtained
easily from rice, biscuits, breads, crackers and
other baked goods from flour mixtures, kakanin,
and fruits.
 Sandwich
Grains and pasta

Fruits and Vegetables

Breads
 Sugar Corn

Root crops
Rice
Recommended Daily Intake of Carbohydrates
Recommended daily allowance for carbohydrate
is 50 to 60% of total caloric requirement should
be provided by carbohydrates; 10 to 15% from
protein and 30% from fat.
In practical dietary planning, it is better to
supply carbohydrate foods that are not “empty
calories” (pure carbohydrate foods supplying
energy and no protein, vitamins or minerals).
 PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS RELATED TO
CARBOHYDRATE
Rich Enrichment Laws
In the Philippines, Republic Act No. 832 requires
the addition of thiamin or vitamin B1 niacin and
iron to milled rice. Two cups of enriched, raw
rice contains 1.6 mg thiamin, 13 mg niacin and
10 mg iron.
Also PD 1211, which regulates the milling of
rice, requires all mill owners/operators to mill a
minimum of 10% of palay received or milled by
them into brown rice.
The Food and Fortification Law (RA 8976) passed in
November 2000, requires the fortification of
wheat flour with vitamin A and iron, cooking oil
and sugar with vitamin A and rice with iron within
4 years that is, by November 2004.

Carbohydrates and Dental Caries

The excessive intake of refined and sticky
carbohydrate foods has been shown to increase
the incidence of dental caries by enhancing acidic
capacity.
This is particularly true if dental hygiene is
neglected and there if familial tendency for
dental decay.