Professional Documents
Culture Documents
7 QC Tools
7 QC Tools
1
Attitudes That Block Openness
to Learning
Learning
No
starts from
Arrogance
Imitation
(Humility)
3
2.Seven Principles of
Training/Education
1. Plan the inputs to T&E to reduce variance of
output
2. Don’t use T&E professionals to teach
3. Use mutual learning, not the traditional teachers
– students roles
4. Avoid “Learn first, apply later”. Unite both
learning and application
5. Create environmental influences for learning
6. Always create institutional support structure
7. Manage T&E with PDCA
4
Push-Pull Diagram for T&E
Current Skill Level
3. Learning Style
M
4. Learn & Apply
O
T 5. Environment
Input
I
V 1. Participants Business
A Output Goal
Push T/E Pull
T Material
I
O 2. Teachers
N
6. Support
Corporate Culture 5
Seven Infrastructure for Mobilizing Change
3
Training /
Education 7
Monitoring
Diagnosis
1
Goal
New Pull
Push Results
Setting Activity
Promotion 6
Organization Incentive
2
4 5
Promotion Success
Story
6
7 QC Tools
7
SEVEN QC TOOLS
Simple
Effective Scientific
Fact Based
Logical Repeatable
8
SEVEN QC TOOLS
Check Sheets
Pareto Diagram
Cause and Effect Diagram.
Stratification.
Scatter Diagram.
Histogram.
Graphs and Control Charts.
9
Check Sheet
Easy
Easy data collection
Easy use of collected data
Easy to understand (Recollect
information)
Independent of skill (Every body can use) Used along with other tools
Information ( Same inference by everyone) Cause and effect verification
Paired relationship Stratification, Histrogram
10
Check Sheet
11
How to Collect Data
1. Have Clear Defined Objectives
• Controlling and monitoring the production process
• Analysis of non-conformance
• Inspection
2. What Is Your Purpose
• Collecting as per strata
• Collecting in Pairs (correlation)
3. Are Measurements Reliable
4. Find Right Ways to Record Data
• Arrangement
• Data sheet
12
Types of check sheet
Frequency type
Defect check sheet
Defect location check sheet
Inspection check sheet
13
Check sheet contd...
Diagram type check sheet Frequency check sheet
14
Check Sheet Planning
How :
•Team agrees as to exactly what event is being observed.
•Decide on the time period during which data will be
collected. This could range from hours to weeks.
•Design a form that is clear and easy to use making sure
that all columns are clearly labeled and that there is
enough space to enter the data.
•Collect the data making sure that observations/ samples
are as representative as possible.
•Check inspection accuracy
15
Pareto
16
Pareto Analysis
What: A bar chart that helps to prioritize actions by arranging
elements in descending order of occurrence. Sorts out
the “vital few” from the “trivial many”.
Why :
•To prioritize actions needed to solve complex problems.
•To separate important from non-important causes
contributing to a problem.
When :
•Many factors are impacting a problem.
•Attention needs to be directed only to the few factors that
account for most of the problem.
17
Pareto Analysis
How:
•Define a problem and collect data on the factors that
contribute to it.
•Historical records generally provide sufficient
information.
•Classify the data by type, cost , percent, number of
occurrences, or whatever is appropriate for the
situation.
•Arrange the data in descending order.
18
Contd……. Pareto Analysis
How contd….
•Draw bar graph showing constituent ratio on vertical axis.
•Connect cumulative percentage of each bar graph to obtain
Pareto curve.
Rejection details of Pinion
Defect Defect Qty % Cum
Code description Rej Contribution %age
A Drill Broken 70 46.60% 46.60%
B Serration Mismatch 45 30% 76.60%
C Runout more 25 16.60% 93.20%
D Dia U/S 6 4% 97.20%
E Dia O/S 4 2.80% 100%
Total 150
19
Contd… Pareto
100%
n=150
75%
50%
Nos.
25%
A B C D E
Defect Code 20
Pareto Analysis
Vital Few
Stratification Structure
21
Types of Pareto Diagrams
1. Pareto Diagrams by Phenomenon
• Quality: defects, faults, failure, complaints, RW etc.
• Cost: amount of loss, expenses
• Delivery: delay in delivery, stock shortages etc
• Safety: accidents, mistakes, breakdowns etc
2. Pareto Diagrams by Causes
• Operator: shift, group, age, experience, skill etc
• Machine: machines, equipments, tools, instruments etc.
• Material: manufacturer, plant, lot, kind etc
• Process: conditions, orders, arrangements,methods etc.
22
Hints on Making Pareto Diagrams
1. Check various classifications and construct many kinds
of Pareto diagrams
Essence of a problem can be grasped by observing it from
various angles
2. It is undesirable that “others” represents a higher
percentage
A different method of classification should be considered
3. It is best to draw Pareto diagrams by assigning
monetary value
Cost is an important scale of measurement in
management. If financial implications of a problem are not
properly appreciated, the research itself may end up as
ineffective.
23
Hints on Using Pareto Diagrams
1. If an item is expected to be amenable to a simple
solution, it should be tackled right away even if it is of
relatively small importance.
It will serve as an example of efficient problem solving, and
the experience, information and incentives to morale
obtained through this will be of great assets for future
problem solving.
2. Do not fail to make Pareto diagram by causes
After identifying the problem by making a Pareto diagram
by phenomenon, it is necessary to identify the causes in order
to solve the problem. It is therefore vital to make a Pareto
diagram by causes if any improvements are to be effected.
24
Cause & Effect Diagram
What:
•A graphic tool used to represent the relationship between
an effect and the cause that influence it.
Why:
•Identifies various causes affecting a process.
•Helps groups in reaching a common understanding of a
problem.
•Helps reduce incidence of subjective decision making.
When:
•Looking for all potential causes of problem.
25
Cause & Effect Diagram
How:
•Define the problem or effect clearly.
•Generate the potential cause of problem through brain
storming.
•Encourage wild ideas
•‘Quantity’ rather than ‘Quality’ of ideas
•Suspend judgement on ‘Good’ or ‘Bad’
•Ride on another’s idea
•Construct the cause and effect diagram by:
•Place problem statement in a box on right hand side.
•Draw the major cause category boxes on the left hand
side. Commonly used categories are man, machine,
method, material and measurement. 26
Cause & Effect Diagram
27
Cause and Effect Diagram
Medical charts
People
Shortage of hard to tell apart
numbers
Reception
Nurses
work
Inexperience
Patients Many charts to input Long waiting
Two or more booked time after
in at same time completion of
ultrasonic scan
Busy
Charts from all
Many patients departments Record
come together findings
Reception Test
Rooms Handling
Computer
Data input
terminal Far away Calculation
slow takes time
of bill
Charts all
Environment Methods returned together
Cause and Effect Diagram
Concrete
Inductive Verification
Hints on Making Cause and Effect
Diagrams
•Identify all the relevant factors through examination
and discussion by many people
•Express the characteristic as concretely as possible
•Make the same number of cause and effect diagrams
as that of characteristics
•Choose a measurable characteristic and factors
•Discover factors amenable to action
30
Hints on Using Cause and Effect
Diagrams
• Assign an importance to each factor objectively on the
basis of data
Examination of factors on the basis of your own skill and
experience is important, but it is dangerous to give importance
to them through subjective perceptions or impressions alone
(would have been solved by now if so). Assigning importance to
factors objectively using data is both more scientific and more
logical.
• Try to improve the cause and effect diagram
continuously while using it
Actually using a cause and effect diagram will help in
seeing those parts which need to be checked, deleted or
modified. This will be useful in solving problems, and at the
same time, will help improve your own skill and to increase your
technological knowledge
31
Pareto Diagrams and Cause and
Effect diagrams-combination
Case Study:
1. Selection of Problems
This is an example illustrating the examination of non-
conformity in a manufacturing process by the use of a
Pareto diagram. When data on non-conformity collected on
two months was classified by non-conforming items, it was
found that dimensional defectives were largest in number,
constituting 48 percent of the total non-conformance. We
therefore tried to reduce the number of non-conformity with
stress on dimensional defectives.
32
Case Study… contd.
June 1-July 31
100
A: Dimensional
150
defectives
75
B: Pinholes
100
50
C: Scratches
50 25 D: Cracks
E: Distortion
A B C D E Others
35
Case Study… contd.
June 1-July 31
100
80
70 75
60
V: Fitting position
50
50
40 W: Working speed
30 X: Components
25
20
Y: Abrasion of jigs & tools
10
Z: Shape of parts
Others
V W X Y Z
Unclear
37
Case Study… contd.
June 1-July 31
100
150
Total effect
75
Sept. 1-Oct. 31
100 100 100
50
75
50 25 50 Effect
50
25
A B C D E Others C B A D E Others
Comparison of Pareto Diagrams Before and After Improvement
38
Stratification
What: Stratification is a statistical technique of breaking
down values and numbers into meaningful categories or
classification.
Why: To focus on corrective action or identify true causes.
When: To identify the cause of problem if they come from a
particular source.
•To analyze root cause in conjunction with other
techniques like Pareto diagram histogram and graphs.
39
Stratification
How:
Regroup original data as per the source of data
(eg. Machine wise, shift-wise, model-wise, supplier-wise)
•If required collect data a fresh after making the source
from which they come.
• Recreate histogram, Pareto charts and graphs on
classified data
40
Stratification ……..contd...
Month Model A Mode B
Apr 10 50
90
May 8 32
Jun 80 15 65
Jul 10 50
Aug 70 8 42
Sep 7 28
60
Rej Nos
50 Mode B
Model A
40
30
20
10
0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Month
41
Stratification ……..contd...
V
V i
i s
s c
c o
o s
s i
i t
t y
y
Impurity Amount Impurity Amount
Meaningful Combination
43
Scatter Diagram
What:
A tool used to study the possible relationship between
two variables.
Why:
To test for possible causes and effect relationships.
Though it cannot prove that one variable causes the other,
the diagram does make it clear whether a relationship
exists and shows the strength of that relationship.
When:
There is a need to display what happens to one variable
when another one changes in order to test that the two
variables are related. 44
Scatter Diagram
How:
•Collect 50 to 100 paired samples of data believed to be
related.
•Construct a data sheet.
•Draw the horizontal and vertical axis of the diagram.
•Label the axes.
• “Cause”is usually plotted on the horizontal axis and the
“effect” variable on the vertical axis.
• Plot the data on the diagram. If values repeat, circle that
point.
45
Interpretation
n=15 r=0.06 n=18 r=0.54 n=14 r=0.96
Structure Inference
47
Some Important Definitions
Mean, x : Sum of the values of the observations divided by
the number of observations.
Variance, 2 : Mean of the squares of deviations of the
observations from their mean
Standard Deviation, : Positive square root of the
variance
48
Correlation Coefficient
S(xy)
r= If r=0 No correlation
S(xx).S(yy)
n
If r=1 Very strong correlation
2
S(xx) = (xi -x) If r=-1 Very strong negative
i=1 correlation
n 2
S(yy) = (yi -y) If 0<lrl<1 Possible correlation
i=1
n
S(xy) = (xi -x) (yi –y)
i=1
49
Significance of ‘r’
r(n-2)
t0 =
√(1-r2)
50
Alpha
0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01
(n-2)
1 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657
2 2.92 4.303 6.965 9.925
3 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841
4 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604
5 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032
6 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707
7 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499
8 1.86 2.306 2.896 3.355
9 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.25
10 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169
11 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106
12 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055
13 1.771 2.16 2.65 3.012
14 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977
15 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947
16 1.746 2.12 2.583 2.921
17 1.74 2.11 2.567 2.898
18 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878
19 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861
20 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845
25 1.708 2.06 2.485 2.787
30 1.679 2.042 2.457 2.75
40 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704
60 1.671 2 2.39 2.66
120 1.658 1.98 2.358 2.617
infinity 1.645 1.967 2.326 2.576
51
Notes on Correlation Analysis
1. Coordinate Axes:
Effect of choosing scale of axes
2. Stratification:
Stratify the data and then see the
correlation
3. Range of variables:
Select range of variables carefully as it
affects correlation 52
Notes on Correlation Analysis
4. False Correlation:
According to a certain survey, there was a strong positive correlation
between the consumer price index and the number of incidents of fire. If
so, then, if consumer price index lowers, will there be indeed fewer fire
emergencies? The answer is most likely “No’. In order to reduce the
incidence of fires, we would stress the importance of cleaning-up of
ashtrays and not to discard any trash that would bring upon incendiary. In
this way, when calculating a correlation coefficient between two variables,
it is sometimes found, by chance, there is a high value of correlation
coefficient between the two variables which originally have little or no
cause and effect relationship to each other. This sort of correlation is called
False correlation. Even if the correlation coefficient is high, it does not
necessarily indicate a cause and effect relationship. It is necessary to take
good note of this fact, and to think about its meaning in science and
technology. 53
Regression Analysis
Estimating the exact relationship between
dependent and independent variables
56
Histogram
When:
•Capability studies are being performed.
•Analyzing the quality of incoming material.
•Understanding population at a glance
How:
•Collect measurements(variable data)from a process or key
characteristic.
•Thirty or more measurements are preferred.
•Construct check sheet to record the data.
•Find the range by subtracting the smallest measurements
from the largest.
•Using this guide determine the proper number of class
intervals. 57
Histogram…...
How…….contd..
Observations No. of classes(K)
25 to 50 5 to 8
51 to 100 6 to 11
101 to 250 9 to 13
251 and over 11 to 15
K=R/h +1 (R = Range)
Select h such that K is between 5~8 or …..
•Construct a frequency table by properly making class
boundaries. Tally the number of observations found in each
class.
58
Histogram…...
How…….contd..
Class Class limits Tally Number of observations
1 0.51 to 5.50 IIII IIII 10
2 5.51 to 10.50 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
3 10.51 to 15.50 IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 25
4 15.51 to 20.50 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
5 20.51 25.50 IIII IIII IIII 15
6 25.51 to 30 .50 IIII IIII 10
25
20
15
10
60
Types of Histogram
Isolated Peak
Type
Left-hand Plateau Type Twin Peak Type
Precipice Type
61
READING HISTOGRAMS
A. General Type
Shape symmetrical (Bell shaped). If your vendor has less variability but
centre is shifting you can help him to do right setting.
B. Bimodal or Twin Peak Type
Two Distributions with widely different mean values mixed.
D. Positive Skew
Occurs when lower limit is controlled either theoretically or by
specification value or when values lower than certain value do not occur
Distribution
At a Inference
glance
64
Normal Distribution
f(x)
x
•Frequency is the highest in the middle and becomes gradually lower towards the tail.
•It is symmetrical
It is denoted by N (
: The centre of the distribution (the mean)
: The spread of the distribution(the standard deviation)
To obtain a probability in a normal distribution, we standardize by transforming x to a
variable, u= x-
, We then have a standard measure u, which is distributed as the
standard normal distribution N(0, 12). The normal distribution table gives probabilities in the
standard normal distribution.
:- 68.3% of area
2 :- 95.4% of area
3 :- 99.7% of area 65
Process Capability Index
After Histogram shows that it follows normal distribution, a study of
process capability is often undertaken. This is to find out whether the process
can meet specifications or not
Both-sided specifications (SU and SL)
CP = SU - SL/6s
CP = SU - x /3s
Evaluation of process:
3) CP 1.00 Inadequate
66
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Cp & Cpk
Rejection %age
1996
80 50 Apr 0.8 0.2
1997
60 45 May 0.6 0.6
1998 70 Jun 0.4 0.2 Rej
40
Jul 0.2
20 0.2
Aug 0.15
0 0
Sep 0.2
1996 1997 1998 Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Year Month
68
Graphs…contd
Pie-chart POWEROTHERS
RBS STRG.
STRG. 5.56%
ASSY.
4.92%
10.83%
R&P ASSY.
AXLE ASSY. 17.62%
28.67%
PROP.SHAFT
COLUMN
ASSY.
ASSY.
6.15%
26.25
69
Control Charts
What: A control chart is a line graph used to display
variation on time ordered fashion. A centerline and control
limits are placed on the graph to help analyze the pattern of
the data.
Why:
•To separate common causes from special causes of
variation.
•To help assign causes of variation.
When : Measuring control characteristics.
Where: At the earliest possible point in the manufacturing
process.
70
Control Charts
How :
•Define process parameter to be measured.
•Define wherein the process the control characteristics will
be measured.
•Select where control chart is to be used.
•Determine sample size and frequency.
•Take measurements.
•Plot measurements on graph.
•Connect dots.
•After 20 plot points calculate center-line and control limits.
•Analyze pattern for special cause of variation.
71
Control Charts……contd..
•Chance Cause
•Assignable Cause
•Upper Control Limit
•Lower Control Limit
•Upper Specification Limit
•Lower Specification Limit
72
Control Charts……contd..
x – R Chart:
50
UCL ( x + A2R )
40
x
30 x
20
LCL ( x - A2R )
0
60
UCL ( D4 R )
40
R R
20
LCL ( D3 R )
73
Coefficients for x-R Charts
Size of Sub-group X-Chart R Chart R Chart R Chart
n A2 D3 D4 d2
2 1.880 - 3.267 1.128
3 1.023 - 2.575 1.693
4 0.729 - 2.282 2.059
5 0.577 - 2.115 2.326
6 0.483 - 2.004 2.534
74
Control Charts……contd..
Other Charts:
pn Chart Number of Defective
76
How to Read Control Charts
4. Approach to the Control Limits
• Two out of three points occur outside of 2-sigma
limits is abnormal
5. Approach to the Center Line
• When most of the points are within central 1.5-sigma
lines, this is also abnormal. It indicates mixing odd
data in sub-groups
6. Periodicity
• When the curve repeatedly shows an up and down
trend for almost same interval, this is also abnormal77