Chapter 2 - Highway Materials

BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mustafa Kamal bin Shamshuddin
BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mustafa Kamal bin Shamshuddin
Materials which involved in highway industry:
Soil
Sand
Crushed rock aggregates
Lime
Portland Cement
Bituminous materials
BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mustafa Kamal bin
Shamshuddin
2.1 Properties and testing of soils, aggregates, lime,

Portland cement and Bituminous Materials
SOIL
• Sub-grade is the part of embankment or natural soil
under the sub-base or lower sub-base of road and road
shoulder.
• First part of the road constructed
• The surface of sub-grade - formation level.
BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mr. Mustafa Kamal bin
Shamshuddin
• Formation level - soil surface after the earthwork,

consolidation, compaction and stabilization works
• Sustain load from the top surfaces
• Selection of suitable soils is important

Shamshuddin
PROPERTIES:
Good sub-grade
• Should be stable under the varieties of vehicle load and

climatic condition.
• The strength of the sub-grade should remain along the
design period.
• The ability to drain water.
Shamshuddin
PROPERTIES:
Not good (Unsuitable materials-USM)
• Soils which consists of organic clays or silts.

• The value of Liquid Limits (LL) > 80 % or Plasticity Index
(PI) > 55 %
• The value of Loss on Ignition (LOI) > 2.5 %
• Soils consist of roots, grass or other plants, toxic, peat or
mud.
Shamshuddin
TESTING
The tests which are usually conducted to the soils for sub
grade and road embankment are listed as follows:
 Loss On Ignition (LOI) – BS 1377: Part 3: 1990

 Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) – BS 1377: Part 2:
1990
 Compaction – BS 1377: Test 13: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) – BS 1377: Test 16: 1975
(Part 4: 1990)
 Field density test – sand replacement method – BS 1377
Shamshuddin
SAND
1. Used for the sub-base layer.
2. Features:
 Must drain readily.

 Sustain smaller load pressure.
3. The functions:
• To sustain road base layer and distribute load from

the vehicle.
• Act as a drainage layer (if the materials used capable
to drain the water)
Shamshuddin
• Can be used as a temporary road during the construction

• To protect the sub-grade from the failure due to the climatic
effect.
• As a barrier layer to avoid the mixing of sub-grade and
road base materials.
Shamshuddin
PROPERTIES:
 Have small proportion of plastic or non plastic fines

 Free from vegetative and other organic matter
 Free from expansive clay minerals and lumps of clay
 The liquid limit shall be not more than 25%.
 The plasticity index shall be not more than 6%.
 The aggregate crushing value shall be not more than 35%.
 CBR value of 30 or more when compacted to 95% of the
maximum dry density
 The gradation shall conform to one of the envelopes shown
in Table 1
Shamshuddin
TESTING
 Atterberg Limits
 Aggregate Crushing Value
 California Bearing Ratio
 Gradation (Sieve test)

Shamshuddin
Table 1: Gradation Limits for Sub-base Material from Specification of

Roadworks (Jabatan Kerja Raya, 1988)
% Passing By Weight
B.S.Sieve Size (mm)
A B C D E F
50.0 100 100 - - - -
25.0 - 79 – 95 100 100 100 100
9.5 30 - 65 40 – 75 50 – 85 60 – 100 - -
4.75 25 – 55 30 – 60 35 – 65 50 – 85 55 – 100 70 – 100
2.0 15 – 40 20 – 45 25 – 50 40 – 70 40 – 100 55 – 100
425 μm 8 – 20 15 – 30 15 – 30 25 – 45 20 – 50 30 – 70
75 μm 2–8 5 – 20 5 – 20 5 - 20 6 – 20 8 – 25
Shamshuddin
AGGREGATE
Aggregates must be hard, durable, clean and essentially free

from clay and other deleterious materials.
PROPERTIES:
 The plasticity index shall be not more than 6.

 The aggregate crushing value shall be not more than 30.
 The flakiness index shall be not more than 30.
 Not less than 80% of particles retained on the B.S 4.75mm
sieve shall have at least one fractured face.
Shamshuddin
 The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium

sulphate soundness test (5 cycles) shall be not more
than 12%.
 The material shall have a CBR value of not less than 80
when compacted to 95% of the maximum dry density.
 The gradation shall comply with the envelope shown in
Table 2 for type specified.
Shamshuddin
TESTING
 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
 Flakiness Index (FI)
 Soundness
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Sieve
Shamshuddin
Table 2: Gradation limit for crushed aggregate road base from Spesification
of Roadworks (Jabatan Kerja Raya, 1988)
% Passing by Weight
B.S Sieve
Type I Type II
50.0 mm 100 100
37.5 mm 95 – 100 85 – 100
28.0 mm - 70 – 100
20.0 mm 60 – 80 60 – 90
10.0 mm 40 – 60 40 – 65
5.00 mm 25 – 40 30 – 55
2.36 mm 15 – 30 -
2.00 mm - 20 – 40
600 µm 8 – 22 -
425 µm - 10 – 25
75 µm 0–8 2 – 10
Shamshuddin
LIME AND
PORTLAND CEMENT
Mix with crushed rock aggregate for road base

construction
Combined with aggregate for asphalt to serve

an adhesion and anti stripping agent
Add for 2% by weight of combined aggregate

(Jabatan Kerja Raya, 1988)
Shamshuddin
TESTING
Properties shall conform to the requirements of MS

522
Shall be dry, free flowing and free from agglomerations

at the time of use
For anti stripping purposes, stripping test need to be

conducted according to AASHTO T 182. Coated area
with bitumen at the end of the mixture’s period of
immersion in water shall be not less than 95%.
The result will indicated that the effectiveness of the

lime or Portland cement used as anti stripping agent.
Shamshuddin
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Term of bitumen and tar
Term USA United Kingdom

Bitumen Asphalt (Asphalt cement) Bitumen
Bitumen + aggregate Asphaltic concrete Asphalt
p/s – Tar previously used as a binder to produce mixture. Sources from coal mine.
Shamshuddin
Bituminous surface layer which the combination of aggregates and binder.
The surface layer consists of two layers which known as the binder course and
the wearing course.
Capable of:
Withstanding high tyre pressure
Resisting the abrasive force due to traffic
Providing a skid-resistance driving surface
Preventing the penetration of surface water

Shamshuddin
Binder Course
 This layer is used to distribute load to the road base and provide the flat
surface to construct the wearing course.
 The maximum size of aggregate used is 28 mm and mixed with percentage
of bitumen ranging from 4 – 6 %.
Wearing Course
 Top layer with the main function to the safety of the road users.
 The other functions of wearing course are listed as follows:
• Provide skid resistance

• Protect the road surface
• Provide a safe and comfortable riding surface
• Sustain abrasion from traffic
• As a drainage system by providing a waterproof layer, and drain surface
run-off to the side drain.
 The maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm and mixed with bitumen with the
percentage ranging from 4.5 – 7 %.
Shamshuddin
The materials used to construct this mixture are aggregates, bitumen and filler.
1. Aggregates – provide interlocking structure, sustain load and distribute to

the layer beneath.
2. Bitumen – binder material which binds the aggregates to produce a

strong and stable mixture.
3. Filler – to fill the voids in the mixture and improve the elasticity of the
bitumen to produce a durable mixture and to reduce bleeding
in bituminous mixture.
Shamshuddin
BITUMEN
In Malaysia, the term of bitumen refers to the binder material, which produces from
refinery of crude oil.
The mixture of bitumen and aggregate is called asphaltic concrete.
The chemical compositions of bitumen (Table 3)
Table 3: Chemical composition of bitumen
Minerals Percentage
Content (%)
Carbon 80 – 85
Hydrogen 10
Sulfur 1–5
Nitrogen 1
Oxygen <1
Shamshuddin
Bitumen can be obtained from two main sources which are:
Natural sources – located in geological stratum and can be obtained in the

hard and soft form.
Petroleum bitumen – bitumen in colloidal obtained from refinery process of crude

oil and has been widely used in the road construction.
Bitumen can be classified into four types as listed as follows:
1. Penetration bitumen
2. Cutback bitumen
3. Emulsified bitumen
4. Blown bitumen
Shamshuddin
1. Penetration Bitumen
The grade is classified according to the penetration test ranging from 40 – 300
while based on the viscosity test ranging from 5 – 40.
2. Cutback Bitumen
Produced based on the bitumen with the percentage ranging from 50 – 80 %

mixed with the petroleum-based solvents.
Solvent will be evaporated
According to the rate of evaporation, this kind of bitumen can be classified into
three groups:
 Rapid Curing (RC)

 Medium Curing (MC)
 Slow Curing (SC)
Shamshuddin
Rapid Curing (RC)
 Produced by mixing the bitumen with petrol.

 Used for the tack coat and surface treatment.
Medium Curing (MC)
 Produced by mixing the bitumen with kerosene.

 Used for the prime coat and cold mix for the patching work.
Slow Curing
 Produced by mixing the bitumen with the diesel.

 Used especially for the prime coat, cold mix for patching work and
dust control.
Shamshuddin
3. Emulsified Bitumen
Produced by mixing the bitumen (55 – 65 %) with water and emulsifier in the
colloidal rotor.
This situation will reduce the viscosity of bitumen and allow them to be used at
the low temperature.
The type of bitumen depends to the emulsifying agent that is used. The two
types of are as follows:
1. Anionic
 Contains the negative bitumen globule.
 Produced with positive emulsifying agent is used - alkali.
 Suitable to be used with the aggregates which have positive charge like
limestone.
Shamshuddin
2. Cationic
 Contains the positive bitumen globule.
 Produced when negative emulsifying agent is used – acid.
 It is suitable to be used with the aggregates which have negative charge like
sand, quartz and silica.
Shamshuddin
Emulsified bitumen can be classified into three groups:
1. Rapid Setting (RS)
 Used for surface treatment and tack coat
2. Medium Setting (MS)
 Used for Macadam penetration and open graded cold mix
3. Slow Setting (SS)
 Used for tack coat, dense grade cold mix, crack patching and slurry mixture
Shamshuddin
Emulsified bitumen is most widely used compared to cutback bitumen due to

the several factors as follows:
1. Environmental regulation – emulsified bitumen contains water while

cutback bitumen contains materials which can evaporate and pollute the
air when it has been used.
2. The wastage of petroleum – cutback bitumen uses petroleum solvents.
3. Safety – emulsified bitumen is safer to be used.
4. Low temperature of mixing – this situation can reduce the cost of fuel
consumption. Besides that, emulsified bitumen can be used on damp
surfaces while cutback bitumen needs dry condition.
Shamshuddin
4. Blown Bitumen
 Produced by heating the bitumen at high temperature and air is allowed

through the bitumen and it makes the bitumen become harder.
 Basically, this type of bitumen is used for building materials especially for
roofs.
Shamshuddin
TESTING
In order to ensure the bitumen that be used fulfill the specification, series of
testing can be conducted as follows:
 Penetration
 Softening Point
 Ductility
 Flash and Fire Point
 Viscosity
 Loss on Heating
 Thin Film Oven Test
 Specific Gravity
 Solubility
Shamshuddin
AGGREGATES
Most of the aggregates used in the road construction were the natural
aggregates. However, there was also widely used the artificial aggregates such
as the waste material from the process of tin ore.
In road construction, the aggregates can be classified into three groups according
to the size as follows:
1. Coarse aggregates – retained on the sieve 2.36 mm.
2. Fine aggregates – passing sieve 2.36 mm and retained at 75 m sieve size.
3. Filler – the dust passing sieve size 75 m (eg. quarry dust and
Portland cement).
Shamshuddin
Coarse aggregates shall be:
• screened crushed hard rock

• angular in shape
• free from dust, clay, vegetative and other organic matter and other
deleterious substances.
Quality requirements:
• The aggregated crushing value shall be not more than 30.

• The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium sulphates soundness test
(5 cycles) shall be not more than 12%.
• The flakiness index shall be not more than 30
• The water absorption shall be not more than 2%.
• The polished stone value shall be not less than 40 (only applicable to
aggregates for wearing course)
Shamshuddin
Fine aggregates shall be:
• clean natural sands

• non-plastic
• free from clay, loam, aggregations of material, vegetative and other organic
matter and other deleterious substances.
• screened quarry fines or mining sand. Mining sand shall be thoroughly
washed before use.
Physical and mechanical quality requirements:
• The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium sulphate soundness test
(5 cycles) shall be not more than 12%.
• The water absorption shall be not more than 2%.
Notwithstanding compliance with the requirements, limestone aggregates shall

not be permitted for use in wearing course.
Shamshuddin
The gradation of the combined course and fine aggregates, together with ordinary
Portland cement added as an adhesion and anti-stripping agent and if necessary
any other mineral filler shall conform to the appropriate envelope shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Gradation limit for surface layer mixture (after Jabatan Kerja Raya, 2008)
Mix Type Wearing Course Binder Course

Mix Designation ACW 14 ACB 14 ACB 28
B.S. Sieve Size % Passing By Weight
37.5 mm - - 100
28.0 mm - - 80 – 100
20.0 mm 100 100 72 – 93
14.0 mm 80 – 95 70 – 95 58 – 82
10.0 mm 68 – 90 56 – 81 50 – 75
5.0 mm 52 – 72 40 – 65 36 – 58
3.35 mm 45 – 62 32 – 58 30 – 52
1.18 mm 30 – 45 20 – 42 18 – 38
425 µm 17 – 30 12 – 28 11 – 25
150 µm 7 – 16 6 – 16 5 – 14
75 µm 4 – 10 4–8 3–8
Shamshuddin
2.2 SOIL STABILISATION
Soil for sub-grade which has CBR value < 2% need to be replaced
with better import material
Increase construction cost
Stabilize in-situ to increase the strength – reduce the construction cost
Methods – chemical stabilisation and mechanical stabilization

Shamshuddin
2.3 HOT MIX ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Shamshuddin
Aggregate Selection
STEP
• determine physical properties
1
• perform blending calculations to achieve aggregate gradation
STEP Binder Selection

2 • determine appropriate binder
Sample Preparation
STEP • 5 blends with 3 samples each
3
• mixing and compaction
Density & Voids Calculation

STEP
• Bulk density, Theoretical Max. SG
4
• VTM, VFB & VMA
STEP Stability Determination

5 • Marshall stability and flow test
Optimum Binder Content Selection

STEP
• based on the combined results of Marshall stability and flow, density analysis and voids analysis
6
• OBC is determined through graphical method
Shamshuddin
MARSHALL MIX DESIGN
The most used method for hot mix asphaltic concrete mixture design is the
Marshall Method (ASTM D 1559).
The objective of the Marshall design:
a) to determine the mixing ratio of aggregates and optimum bitumen
content
b) produce the durable, stable and adequate of voids, workable, flexible,
economy and quality.
The most common method used to determine the optimum bitumen content is
the method proposed by the Asphalt Institute. The procedure of this method is
given as follows:
a. Determine
- Bitumen content for the maximum stability
- Bitumen content for the maximum density
- Bitumen content at the median of the specification of VTM
- Bitumen content at the median of the specification of VFB
Shamshuddin
b. Calculate the mean value from these 4 values

c. Based on this mean value, determine the values from the
Marshall properties curve as listed below:
Stability (S)
Flow (F)
Stiffness (S/F)
Void in Total Mix (VTM)
Void Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
Compare the values obtain from (c) with the specification

values (Table 5).
IMPORTANT !!!
 If it fulfills the specification, the bitumen can be considered

as the optimum bitumen content.
 If it does not fulfill the requirement, the mixture needs to be
redesigned.
Shamshuddin
Typical curve of Marshall properties

Shamshuddin
Table 5: Test and Analysis Parameters for Asphaltic Concrete

(after Jabatan Kerja Raya, 2008)
Parameter Wearing Course Binder Course
Stability > 500 kg > 450 kg
Flow > 2.0 mm > 2.0 mm
Stiffness > 250kg/mm > 225 kg/mm
Air voids in mix (VTM) 3.0% - 5.0% 3.0% - 7.0%
Voids in aggregates filled with 75% - 85% 65% - 80%

bitumen (VFB)
Shamshuddin
Conventional bitumen content ranges used for mix design
Wearing Course ACW 14 5.0 – 7.0%

ACW 20 4.5 – 6.5%
Binder Course ACB 14 4.5 – 6.5%
ACB 20 4.0 – 6.0%
ACB 28 4.0 – 6.0%
For more information on Marshall Mix Design, visit this website:

http://training.ce.washington.edu/WSDOT/Modules/05_mix_design/05-4_body.htm
Shamshuddin
EXAMPLE
% AC Density Stability Flow Stiffness VTM VFB

4.0 2.259 1339.2 2.62 511.8 6.49 57.96
4.5 2.270 1469.3 2.79 526.0 5.33 65.50
5.0 2.289 1551.0 3.19 486.2 3.86 74.59
5.5 2.272 1321.3 3.25 407.0 3.89 76.06
6.0 2.260 1196.7 3.70 323.1 3.70 78.40
3.80 550.0
3.60 500.0
3.40
450.0
3.20 Stiffness
3.00 400.0
Flow
2.80 350.0
2.60
300.0
2.40
2.20 250.0
2.00 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
Shamshuddin
2.295 1600.0
2.290
1500.0
2.285
1400.0
2.280
Stability
Density
2.275 1300.0
2.270
1200.0
2.265
1100.0
2.260
2.255 1000.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
7.00 80.00
6.50
75.00
6.00
70.00
5.50
VTM
VFA
5.00 65.00
4.50
60.00
4.00
55.00
3.50
3.00 50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
Shamshuddin
Average = (5.02 + 4.85 + 4.55 + 4.98) / 4 = 4.85 %
1600.0 550.0
1500.0 500.0
450.0
1400.0
Stiffness
Stability
400.0
1300.0
350.0
1200.0
300.0
1100.0 250.0
1000.0 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
3.80 7.00
3.60 6.50
3.40 6.00
3.20
5.50
3.00
Flow
VTM
5.00
2.80
4.50
2.60
2.40 4.00
2.20 3.50
2.00 3.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
Shamshuddin
80.00
75.00
70.00
VFA
65.00
60.00
55.00
50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC
Parameter Results Specification Remarks

(Binder course, JKR 1988)
Stability 1530 kg > 450 kg OK
Flow 3.04 mm > 2.0 mm OK
Stiffness 495 kg/mm > 225 kg/mm OK
VTM 4.42 % 3.0 – 7.0% OK
VFB 71.1% 65 – 80% OK
 Optimum Binder Content, OBC = 4.85%

Shamshuddin
COLD MIX ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXTURE DESIGN
Produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with

(essentially) soap prior to mixing with the aggregate.
While in its emulsified state the asphalt is less viscous and

the mixture is easy to work and compact.
The emulsion will break after enough water evaporates and

the cold mix will, ideally, take on the properties of cold HMAC.
Cold mix is commonly used as a patching material and on

lesser trafficked service roads.
Shamshuddin

Chapter 2 - Highway Materials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 2 - Highway Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mustafa Kamal bin Shamshuddin

BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Mustafa Kamal bin Shamshuddin

Materials which involved in highway industry:

2.1 Properties and testing of soils, aggregates, lime,

• Formation level - soil surface after the earthwork,

• Sustain load from the top surfaces

• Selection of suitable soils is important

• Should be stable under the varieties of vehicle load and

Not good (Unsuitable materials-USM)

• Soils which consists of organic clays or silts.

 Loss On Ignition (LOI) – BS 1377: Part 3: 1990

 Must drain readily.

• To sustain road base layer and distribute load from

• Can be used as a temporary road during the construction

 Have small proportion of plastic or non plastic fines

 Aggregate Crushing Value

 California Bearing Ratio

 Gradation (Sieve test)

Table 1: Gradation Limits for Sub-base Material from Specification of

Aggregates must be hard, durable, clean and essentially free

 The plasticity index shall be not more than 6.

 The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium

 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)

 Flakiness Index (FI)

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

Mix with crushed rock aggregate for road base

Combined with aggregate for asphalt to serve

Add for 2% by weight of combined aggregate

Properties shall conform to the requirements of MS

Shall be dry, free flowing and free from agglomerations

For anti stripping purposes, stripping test need to be

The result will indicated that the effectiveness of the

Term of bitumen and tar

Term USA United Kingdom

Bituminous surface layer which the combination of aggregates and binder.

Withstanding high tyre pressure

Resisting the abrasive force due to traffic

Providing a skid-resistance driving surface

Preventing the penetration of surface water

• Provide skid resistance

1. Aggregates – provide interlocking structure, sustain load and distribute to

2. Bitumen – binder material which binds the aggregates to produce a

Table 3: Chemical composition of bitumen

Bitumen can be obtained from two main sources which are:

Natural sources – located in geological stratum and can be obtained in the

Petroleum bitumen – bitumen in colloidal obtained from refinery process of crude

Bitumen can be classified into four types as listed as follows:

Produced based on the bitumen with the percentage ranging from 50 – 80 %

 Rapid Curing (RC)

Rapid Curing (RC)

 Produced by mixing the bitumen with petrol.

Medium Curing (MC)

 Produced by mixing the bitumen with kerosene.

 Produced by mixing the bitumen with the diesel.

 Contains the negative bitumen globule.

 Produced with positive emulsifying agent is used - alkali.

 Contains the positive bitumen globule.

 Produced when negative emulsifying agent is used – acid.

Emulsified bitumen can be classified into three groups:

1. Rapid Setting (RS)

 Used for surface treatment and tack coat

2. Medium Setting (MS)

 Used for Macadam penetration and open graded cold mix