Chapter 2

Historical Geology
Historical Geology
 deals with the history of the earth its changing face
and structures and the changing forms of living
things whose remains & traces are found as fossils
in the rocks.

 deals with the historical evolution of the earth’s

crust
Foundations of Geology
 Principle of Uniformitarianism
 There are inviolable laws of nature that have not
changed in the course of time
 First founding principle of geology
 James Hutton
 Actualism
 Application of modern processes to ancient system
 The Present is the Key to the past.
Actualism

 Modern ripples
provide clues to
ancient systems
The Principle of Uniformitarianism
Exceptions:
a. Rocks formed under conditions that no longer exist
Banded Iron Formations
b. Conditions exist but cannot be observed Depth,
metamorphism - Lab results may simulate these
conditions.
c. Conditions exist at present, but require long time
periods to form.
The Founders of Historical Geology
A. Greeks
1. Herodotus, a Greek historian, concluded in 400 BC
that the Med. was at one time more widespread and
that the Nile delta was constructed from great
volumes of sediment that had been transported and
deposited by the Nile River. (Modern
sedimentology?) But, he believed most features were
the result of sudden, violent processes.

2. Herodotus is the first writer to make a conscious

attempt to discover and explain past events. He is
rightly known as the 'father of history'.
The Founders of Historical Geology
Aristotle (384-322 BC) recognized river deposits
and realized that fossil seashells from rocks were
similar to those found on the beach, indicating
the fossils were once living animals. He deduced
that the positions of land and sea had changed
and thought these changes occurred over long
periods of time.
The Founders of Historical Geology
3. Eratosthenes (250 BC) calculated
the circumference of the Earth by
measuring noontime shadows at two
localities of different latitude. He
extrapolated the distance from his
reference points at Syene and
Alexandria in Egypt and determined
Earth's circumference to be ~40,000
km, a remarkably accurate estimate
and major scientific accomplishment.
(40,045km)
The Founders of Historical Geology
Eratosthenes knew that at the summer
solstice the sun shone directly into a well at
Syene at noon.

He found that at the same time, in

Alexandria, Egypt, approximately 787 km due
north of Syene (now Aswan), the angle of
inclination of the sun’s rays was about 7.2°.

With these measurements he computed the

diameter and circumference of the earth as we
will do.
The Founders of Historical Geology

Eratosthenes also measured the tilt of

the Earth axis as 23.5 degrees, which
gives us the seasons.
The Founders of Historical Geology
B. Romans - Grecian theories of scientific
inquiry transcended time and culture
and were inherited by Roman scholars.

1. Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD)

Or Caius Plinius Secundus (23-79):

Roman officer and encyclopedist,

author of the Natural history.
The Founders of Historical Geology

Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) reached

similar conclusions as those of the
Greeks concerning the distribution
of land and sea; modern and fossil
shell comparisons,
The Founders of Historical Geology
Pliny the Elder wanted to study the eruption of
Vesuvius but died trying to rescue people
(August 25).
The Founders of Historical Geology

 An Italian monk, Dionysius Exiguus, was

commissioned by the pope in AD 525 to work out a
Christian chronology. Using earlier tables, he
concludes that Jesus Christ was born in the Roman
year 753 AUC. He therefore proposes that the Christian
era begins at the start of the following year. 1 January
754 AUC (Roman calendar) becomes 1 January AD 1.
The Founders of Historical Geology

 From other sources of evidence it later becomes clear

that Jesus must have been born before 4 BC - the date
of the death of Herod, from whose massacre the infant
Jesus is supposed to have escaped. But this does not
make the new chronology any less useful for dating
subsequent events, once the chronology is widely used
(a process which takes some time to achieve).
The Founders of Historical Geology
C. --- The Dark Ages (~500-1100 AD) ---

Decline of the Roman Empire - Principle of

uniformity of nature's processes, along with
scientific inquiry suffered a critical blow -

The DARK AND MIDDLE AGES. For 1000 years,

Religious dogma held sway and any departures
from the structures of the time was considered
a serious offense.
The Founders of Historical Geology
D. --- Printing Press invented (1450) [Renaissance begins] ---

The Renaissance - advance in many scientific fields -

development of scientific principles - Copernicus, Kepler and
Galileo put the Earth in a new cosmic context (Astronomy).

Geology - another story - religious climate still limited advances

in geology - the science of the Earth itself. Genesis portrayed an
Earth that was 6000 yrs. old. Creationists considered the Earth as
stable since the Noachian flood catastrophe.
The Founders of Historical Geology
1. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-
1519) recognized that
material carried by
rivers to the sea was
eventually compacted
into sedimentary rock
and later uplifted to
form mountains.
2. He concurred with
Aristotle's view that
fossils were the remains
of ancient life.
The Founders of Historical Geology
 Doubted the Great
Flood
"if the shells had been
carried by the muddy
deluge they would have
been mixed up, and
separated from each
other amidst the mud,
and not in regular steps
and layers -- as we see
them now in our time."
The Founders of Historical Geology
Leonardo's answer

"it must be presumed that

in those places there
were sea coasts, where
all the shells were
thrown up, broken, and
divided. . ." Where
there is now land, there
was once ocean.
The Founders of Historical Geology
2. James Ussher (1581-1665) was the first to estimate
the age of the Earth using genealogies of the Bible.
Ussher stated in 1650 that the Earth was created on
October 22, 4004 BC. This date was later
reproduced in many editions of the Bible and was
incorporated into the dogma of the Christian
church. For nearly a century thereafter, it was
considered heresy to assume that Earth and its
puzzling geologic features were more than ~6000
years old. Thus, a very young Earth provided a basis
for most chronologies until the 18th century.
The Founders of Historical Geology
3. Nicholas Steno or Neils
Stensen (Danish physician,
1638-1687)

Studies of Italian geology - settled

in Florence Italy - Physician to
the Grand Duke of Tuscany
- ample time to explore and
follow interests
Origin of the Universe
Several Hypotheses that explain for the origin of the
Solar System:
1. Nebular Hypothesis
2. Planetisimal Hypothesis
3. Tidal Hypothesis
4. Dust Cloud Hypothesis
Difference between Hypothesis from Theory:
 Hypothesis – an idea concerning an event and its possible
explanation.
- assumption
 Theory – explanation
- this has been proven already
1. Nebular Hypothesis – one star hypothesis, by Kant & La
Place.
- this explains that the matter that made up the planets,
satellites and the sun was a huge spheroidal nebula
(gaseous matter) which had acquired rotational
motion, though slow at first,
- gradually became faster & faster due to gravitational
contraction and because of centrifugal force some
portion escape outward thereby forming the planets,
satellites & other heavenly bodies.
 Planets – large celestial body in orbit around a star,
which is composed of rock, metal or gas.
 Satellites – dependent on
 subordinate
 follower
 planetoid – asteroid
2. Planetisimal Hypothesis – known as 2 star hypothesis,
by Chamberlin & Moulton
 it explains that the sun traveled alone until it almost
collided with another star. In that encounter, tidal
stresses generated by the pull of the passing star
partly disrupted the sun and set the fragments on the
plane around it. This debris was then slowly gathered
to form the planets and their satellites, and the
residue being left in the form of planetoids & meteors
but were caught in the gravitational field of the
planets.
 Meteors - a small particle of matter which travels at
great speed through space and becomes luminous
through friction as it enters the earth’s atmosphere &
burns up; a shooting star.
3. Tidal Hypothesis – by James Jean & Harold Jeffries
 both theorized that another star closely approached
the sun where the latter produces tidal bulges, from
which steamed of an enormous cigar – shaped
filament of solar gases was put into revolution around
the sun. Then it breaks into segments where the
segments contracted into rotating spheres which is
now known as the planets.
4. Dust Cloud Hypothesis – by Fred L. Whipple
- His suggestion was that the beginning of the earth was
a cloud of cosmic dust similar to the many dark nebulae.
This dust was driven together by the force of light
towards the outside portion where it enables to propel
the substance known as comets. Moving stream of
particles then separated forming into the planets & their
satellites.
5. Nova Hypothesis – by Hoyle; Older Binary Star – by
Henry N. Russel; Double Star – by R. A. Lyttleton.
Hoyle’s view is that one member of the pair
exploded to produce the material of the planets.

6. Big Bang Theory – by Charle’s Darwin

- He explained that the universe exploded at a single
instant from a mass of gaseous material which has
been expanding through the space ever since.
 Nebular Hypothesis
A model of star and planet formation in which a nebula
contracts under the force of gravity, eventually flattening
into a spinning disk with a central bulge. A protostar
forms at the nebula's center. As matter condenses
around the protostar in the bulge, planets are formed
from the spinning matter in the disk. This theory is
widely accepted to account for the formation of stars and
planetary systems such as ours. The first version of the
nebular hypothesis was proposed in 1755 by the German
philosopher Immanuel Kant and modified in 1796 by
Pierre Laplace. The nebula that according to this
hypothesis condensed to form the solar system is called
the solar nebula.
 Planetesimal Hypothesis
 The Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis
was proposed in 1905 by geologist Thomas Chrowder
Chamberlin and astronomer Forest Ray Moulton to
describe the formation of the solar system. It was
proposed as a replacement for the Laplacian version of the
nebular hypothesis that had prevailed since the 19th
century.
 The theory was based on the idea that a star passed close
enough to the sun early in its life to cause tidal bulges to form
on its surface, which along with the internal process that
leads to solar prominences, caused material to be ejected
repeatedly from the sun. Due to the gravitational effects of
the passing star, two spiral-like arms would have extended
from the sun, and while most of the material would have
fallen back, part of it would remain in orbit. This orbiting
material would cool and condense into numerous small
bodies that they termed planetesimals and a few larger
protoplanets. Their theory proposed that as these objects
collided over time, the planets and their moons were built
up, with comets and asteroids being the leftover debris. The
"spiral nebulae" photographed at Lick Observatory were
thought to possibly be views of other suns undergoing this
process. These nebulae are now known to be galaxies rather
than developing solar systems.
 In 1917, James Hopwood Jeans argued that only a very
close approach of a second star was necessary to eject
material, instead of requiring solar prominences. In 1939,
Lyman Spitzer showed that a column of material drawn
out from the sun would dissipate rather than condense.
By this time the theory had mostly fallen out of favor,
and in the 1940s, the work of Henry Norris Russell
showed that if the solar material had been pulled away
from the sun with the force necessary to account for the
angular momentum of Jupiter, the material would have
continued out of the solar system entirely.
 Though the Chamberlin–Moulton hypothesis is no
longer accepted, the idea of planetesimals remains in
modern theory.
 Tidal Hypothesis
 Championed by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys, this
explained the origin of the solar system as a result of a close
encounter between the Sun and a second star. However, it
differed significantly from the other major catastrophic
hypothesis of the 20th century, the Chamberlin-Moulton
planetesimal hypothesis.
 As a result of a detailed mathematical analysis, Jeans
concluded in 1916 that the tidal interaction between the
Sun and a passing star would raise tides on the Sun
resulting in the loss of a single cigar-shaped filament of
hot gas, rather than separate streams of gas as in the
Chamberlin and Moulton scenario. This hot gas would
then condense directly into the planets instead of going
through a planetesimal stage. The central section of the
"cigar" would give rise to the largest planets – Jupiter and
Saturn – while the tapering ends would provide the
substance for the smaller worlds.
 This model had important repercussions for the possibility of
life elsewhere in the universe because if planetary systems
came about only as a result of freak stellar encounters, there
would be relatively few extrasolar worlds to provide
biological platforms. In his 1923 lecture "The Nebular
Hypothesis and Modern Cosmogony, Jeans said:
 Astronomy does not know whether or not life is important in
the scheme of things, but she begins to whisper that life must
necessarily be somewhat rare.
 By the late 1920s, this opinion was shared by many
astronomers. However, in 1935, Henry Norris Russell
raised what would become fatal objections to the Jeans-
Jeffreys hypothesis. He pointed out that it was hard to
see how a close stellar encounter could leave the Sun,
which is a thousand times more massive than the
planets, with such a tiny share of the solar system's
angular momentum. Furthermore, he could not
understand how the planets could condense out of hot
material ejected from the Sun. The former objection was
put into stronger form by Russell himself in 1943, while
the latter was strengthened by Russell's student, Lyman
Spitzer, in 1939.
Dust Cloud Hypothesis
 The interplanetary dust cloud is cosmic
dust (small particles floating in space) which pervade
the space between planets in the Solar System and in
other planetary systems. It has been studied for many
years in order to understand its nature, origin, and
relationship to larger bodies.
 In our solar system, the dust particles not only scatter
solar light (called the "zodiacal light", which is confined
to the ecliptic plane), buts also produce thermal
emission, which is the most prominent feature of the
night-sky light in the 5-50 micrometer wavelength
domain (Levasseur-Regourd, A.C. 1996). The grains
characterizing the infrared emission near the earth's
orbit have typical sizes of 10-100 micrometers (Backman,
D., 1997). The total mass of the interplanetary dust cloud
is about the mass of an asteroid of radius 15 km (with
density of about 2.5 g/cm 3 ).
 Sources of interplanetary dust
 The sources of interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) include at
least: asteroid collisions, cometary activity and collisions in
the inner solar system, Kuiper Belt collisions, and interstellar
medium grains (Backman, D., 1997). Indeed, one of the
longest-standing controversies debated in the interplanetary
dust community revolves around the relative contributions to
the interplanetary dust cloud from asteroid collisions and
cometary activity.
 Dust particle life cycle
 The main physical processes "affecting" (destruction or
expulsion mechanisms) interplanetary dust particles are:
expulsion by radiation pressure, inward Poynting-Robertson
(PR) radiation drag, solar wind pressure (with significant
electromagnetic effects), sublimation, mutual collisions, and
the dynamical effects of planets (Backman, D., 1997).
 The lifetimes of these dust particles are very short
compared to the lifetime of the Solar System. If one finds
grains around a star that is older than about 100,000,000
years, then the grains must have been from recently
released fragments of larger objects, i.e. they cannot be
leftover grains from the protoplanetary disk (Backman,
private communication). Therefore, the grains would be
"later-generation" dust. The zodiacal dust in the solar
system is 99.9% later-generation dust and 0.1%
intruding interstellar medium dust. All primordial
grains from the Solar System's formation were removed
long ago.
 Particles which are affected primarily by radiation pressure
are known as beta meteoroids . They are generally less than
1.4 x 10-12 g and spiral outward from the sun into interstellar
space.
 Collecting interplanetary dust on earth
 In 1951, Fred Whipple predicted that micrometeorites
smaller than 100 micrometers in diameter might be
decelerated on impact with the earth's upper
atmosphere without melting. The modern era of
laboratory study of these particles began with the
stratospheric collection flights of Brownlee and
collaborators in the 1970s using balloons and then U2
aircraft.
 Although some of the particles found were similar to the
material in present day meteorite collections, the
nanoporous nature and unequilibrated cosmic-average
composition of other particles suggested that they began
as fine-grained aggregates of nonvolatile building blocks
and cometary ice.
Nova Hypothesis
 A nova (pl. novae) is a cataclysmic nuclear
explosion caused by the accretion of hydrogen
onto the surface of a white dwarf star, which
ignites and starts nuclear fusion in a runaway
manner. Novae are not to be confused with
supernovae or luminous red novae.
 Big Bang Theory
 The Big Bang is the prevailing cosmological theory of
the early development of the universe. Cosmologists
use the term Big Bang to refer to the idea that the
universe was originally extremely hot and dense at some
finite time in the past and has since cooled by
expanding to the present diluted state and continues to
expand today. The theory is supported by the most
comprehensive and accurate explanations from current
scientific evidence and observation. According to the
best available measurements as of 2010, the initial
conditions occurred around 13.3 to 13.9 billion years ago.
 Georges Lemaître proposed what became known as the Big
Bang theory of the origin of the Universe, although he
called it his "hypothesis of the primeval atom". The
framework for the model relies on Albert Einstein's general
relativity and on simplifying assumptions (such as
homogeneity and isotropy of space). The governing
equations had been formulated by Alexander Friedmann.
After Edwin Hubble discovered in 1929 that the distances to
far away galaxies were generally proportional to their
redshifts, as suggested by Lemaître in 1927, this observation
was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and
clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our
vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent
velocity. If the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing
today, everything must have been closer together in the past.
According to the Big Bang model, the Universe expanded from an extremely
dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains
that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf
of bread. The graphic scheme above is an artist's concept illustrating the
expansion of a portion of a flat Universe.
 What is the Geologic Time Scale?
Recognize the relationship among the units—era, epoch, and period—into which the geologic time scale is divided.

What does the time scale represent?

 The geologic time scale divides up the history of the earth based on life-forms that
have existed during specific times since the creation of the planet. These divisions are
called geochronologic units (geo: rock, chronology: time).
 Most of these life-forms are found as fossils, which are the remains or traces of an
organism from the geologic past that has been preserved in sediment or rock. Without
fossils, scientists may not have concluded that the earth has a history that long precedes
mankind.

 The Geologic Time Scale is divided by the following divisions:

 Eons: Longest subdivision; based on the abundance of certain fossils
 Eras: Next to longest subdivision; marked by major changes in the fossil record
 Periods: Based on types of life existing at the time
 Epochs: Shortest subdivision; marked by differences in life forms and can
vary from continent to continent.
4
 What is the Geologic Time Scale, continued?
 Due to the fact that early geologists had no way of knowing how the discoveries of
the Earth were going to develop, geologist over time have put the time scale together
piece by piece. Units were named as they were discovered. Sometimes unit names
were borrowed from local geography, from a person, or from the type of rock that
dominated the unit.
Examples
 Cambrian: From the Latin name for Wales. Named for exposures of
strata found in a type-section in Wales by British geologist Adam Sedgwick.
 Devonian: Named after significant outcrops first discovered near
Devonshire, England
 Jurassic: Named for representative strata first seen in the Jura Mountains
by German geologist Humboldt in 1795)
 Cretaceous: From the Latin “creta” meaning chalk by a Belgian geologist
 The earliest time of the Earth is called the Hadean and refers to a period of time for which we
have no rock record, and the Archean followed, which corresponds to the ages of the oldest known
rocks on earth. These, with the Proterozoic Eon are called the Precambrian Eon. The remainder of
geologic time, including present day, belongs to the Phanerozoic Eon.
 While the units making up the time scale are called geochronologic units, the actual rocks formed
during those specific time intervals are called chronostratigraphic units. The actual rock record of a
period is called a system, so rocks from the Cambrian Period are of the Cambrian system.
56
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
MYA ERA PERIOD EPOCH PLATE TECTONICS LIFE

-Mastadons become extinct

-Human culture flourishes
0.01 Holocene Beaches and barrier islands form
-Accelerating extinction of many
Quaternary species

-Modern humans develop

1.8 Pleistocene Ice sheets form -Asians arrive and settle the
Americas

-Volcanic activity in North

5.3 Pliocene America and Africa Hominids develop
-Grand Canyon forms
Cenozoic
Horses, mastadons, mammoths,
“Age of
23.8 Miocene Sandhills form in S.C. tigers, and camels live in South
Mammals”
Carolina

Appalachians uplift; erosion

33.7 Oligocene Cats, dogs, and apes appear
Tertiary increases

-Grass spreads widely

Sea levels rise; deposits of marine
-Diverse array of animals develop,
54.8 Eocene sediments – limestone in S.C.;
including whales, rhinos, and
land bridges form
elephants

Earthquakes common; Georgia

-First horses appear (size of a cat)
65.0 Paleocene Embayment, Cape Fear Arch
-Tropical plants dominate
forms in Southeast

Mass extinction occurs at the end -T-Rex develops but number of

of the period caused by a dinosaur species decline
144 Cretaceous meteorite impact (Dinosaurs, -Snakes appear and first primates
ammonites and 25% of marine life appear
become extinct) -Angiosperms appear
Mesozoic
“Age of Western US: orogeny of Rockies;
-First birds appear
206 Reptiles” Jurassic North America continues to rotate
-Golden age of dinosaurs
away from Africa

-Pangea begins to break apart First dinosaurs, mammals,

248 Triassic -Rocky Mountains and Sierra crinoids, and modern echinoids
Nevada form appear
-90% of Earth’s species become
extinct, including trilobites,
-Pangea forms
290 Permian blastoids, fish and amphibians
-Appalachians rise
because of heavy volcanism in
Siberia 58
 -Reptiles develop from
Great swamps develop (future
320 Pennsylvanian amphibians

Carboniferous
coal deposits
-Flying insects appear

-First seed plants appear

Much of North America is under -Sea life flourishes including
354 Mississippian
water coral, brachiopods, blastoids, and
bryozoa

-Dominant animals: fish

Paleozoic Acadian Orogeny – SC
417 Devonian -Amphibians, evergreens and
“Age of metamorphism
ferns appear
Invertebrates”
First land plants appear and land
443 Silurian Extensive erosion
animals follow

-Beginning of the construction of

-First animals with bones appear
South Carolina
-Dominant animals: marine
490 Ordovician -Great extinction due to growth of
invertebrates including corals and
ice caps including in what is now
trilobites
northern Africa

-Explosion of life
-All existing phyla came into
being here
S.C. near the equator; island arc
-Life forms in warm seas as
540 Cambrian continues to move toward North
oxygen levels rose enough to
America
support life
-Dominant animals: trilobites and
brachiopods

Earth takes 10 million years to

No life possible as the Earth
cool: initial atmosphere escapes
initially forms 4.6 billion years
into space (H&He) and the core
ago.
forms (Fe&Ni)
Simple, single-celled forms of life
Volcanic outgassing of water and
appear 3.8 billion years ago.
Precambrian carbon dioxide occurred for
4600 They will become more complex
(Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic Ages) millions of years, helping to build
and successful over the next 3
atmosphere and then oceans
billion years: Prokaryotes then
At 3 billion years ago, banded
Eukaryotes
iron formation rocks appear due
Cyanobacteria begins producing
to rising oxygen levels in the
free oxygen (photosynthesis)
atmosphere and sea
7
 Principles Behind Geologic Time
 Nicholas Steno, a Danish physician (1638-1687), described how the position of a rock layer could
be used to show the relative age of the layer. He devised the three main principles that underlie the
interpretation of geologic time:
 The principle of superposition: The layer on the bottom was deposited first and so is the oldest
 The principle of horizontality: All rock layers were originally deposited horizontally.
 The principle of original lateral continuity: Originally deposited layers of rock extend laterally
in all directions until either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer.

 These important principles have formed the framework for the geologic area of stratigraphy,
which is the study of layered rock (strata).
Geologist studying the stratigraphy in
Younger the Copper Basin, Idaho. These rock
layers were deposited horizontally,
and uplifted later so they are now
tilted at an angle (along the red arrow).
Older (Photo contributed by K. McCarney-Castle)

 Decades later, other European scientists rediscovered ‘Steno’s Laws’ and began applying them.
Abraham Gottlob Werner became famous for his proposal that all rocks came from the ocean
environment. He and his followers were called “Neptunists.” An opposing view (by Voisins)
argued that all rocks of the earth came from volcanic environments. These scientist were called
“plutonists.” 8
 Principles Behind Geologic Time, continued
 James Hutton, a Scottish physician and geologist (1726-1797), thought the surface of the earth
was an ever-changing environment and “the past history of our globe must be explained by what
can be seen to be happening now.” This theory was called “uniformitarianism,” which was later
catch-phrased as “the present is the key to the past.”
 William Smith was a surveyor who was in charge of mapping a large part of England. He was
the first to understand that certain rock units could be identified by the particular assemblages of
fossils they contained. Using this information, he was able to correlate strata with the same fossils
for many miles, giving rise to the principle of biologic succession.
 The principle of biologic succession: Each age in the earth’s history is unique such that
fossil remains will be unique. This permits vertical and horizontal correlation of the rock
layers based on fossil species.

Even though these two outcrops are

Rock Outcrop 1 separated by a large distance, the same
rock layer can be correlated with the
other because of the presence of the
same shark teeth. This lets scientists
know that the two layer were deposited
at the same time, even if the surrounding
rocks look dissimilar from each other.
Rock Outcrop 2

300 km 9
 Principles Behind Geologic Time, continued
 During the early 1800’s, English Geologist, Charles Lyell published a book called “Principles of
Geology,” which became a very important volume in Great Britain. It included all of Hutton’s
ideas, and presented his own contemporary ideas such as:
 The principle of cross-cutting relationships: A rock feature that cuts across another feature
must be younger than the rock that it cuts.
 Inclusion principle: Small fragments of one type of rock but embedded in a second type of
rock must have formed first, and were included when the second rock was forming.

 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an unpaid naturalist who signed up for a 5-yr
expedition around the world aboard the H.M.S. Beagle. On this trip, he realized
two major points. In spite of all species reproducing, no one species overwhelmed
the Earth, concluding that not all individuals produced in a generation survive. He
also found that individuals of the same kind differ from one another and concluded
that those with the most favorable variations would have the best chance of
surviving to create the next generation.

 The theory of natural selection was credited to Darwin (along with Alfred Russel Wallace) and
he went on to write the famous “Origin of Species.” Darwin’s two goals in that work were:
1. To convince the world that evolution had occurred and organisms had changed over
geologic time
2. The mechanism for this evolution was natural selection. 62
 Relative Age Dating
Infer the relative age of rocks and fossils from index fossils and the ordering of the rock layers.
 “Relative age” means the age of one object compared to the age of another, not the exact age of
an object. This method can only be used when the rock layers are in their original sequence.
 All six of the original stratigraphic principles may be applied to determine the age of a rock.
This process is called age dating. Correlation of strata by rock unit type (lithology) or fossil type
(biology) using species, composition, or texture leads scientists to extrapolate relationships over
large areas of land. Because rock layers can be “matched up,” we can guess that they were
formed during the same period, so they usually are the same age.
 Using the principles of original horizontality and superposition, we can conclude that oldest
rock is always on the bottom because is was deposited 1st.
 Deciphering the sequence of a rock outcrop is sometimes complicated by a features within the
rock record called unconformities, which are specific contacts between rock layers. There are
three types of unconformities that help us determine relative ages of rock layers:

1. Angular: Horizontal beds are uplifted and tilted or

eroded followed by new deposition of horizontal
beds. The figure to the right is an angular
unconconformity. Horizontal bed of
sedimentary rock
2. Disconformity: Episodes of erosion or non-
deposition between layers Tilted bed of
sedimentary rock
3. Nonconformity: Sediment is deposited on top of
eroded volcanic or metamorphic rock (indicates
very long passage of time) Wikipedia (public domain)
  Relative ages can also be determined using Lyell’s
principle of cross-cutting relationships. In the figure to
the right, both the gray and the yellow horizontal strata
needed to be in place for the pink layer to cut them,
therefore, the pink layer is the youngest. (Image from Plummer/
McGeary, 7th edition, 1996)

Relative Age dating with index fossils

 Biostratigraphy is the correlation of stratigraphic units based on fossil content.
Biostratigraphically useful species are known as index fossils (or guide fossils) because they can be
used as guides for recognition of chronostratigraphic units.
 Index fossils are widespread, have short temporal durations resulting from rapid life spans, are
abundant throughout their geographic and geologic ranges, and are easily recognized (unique).
 Trilobites are a commonly used index fossil because they
are easy to recognize. We know exactly when certain
species became extinct, such that we can compare rock
layers that contain trilobites with a second rock layer and,
based on position, determine if the second rock layer is
younger. The photo to the right is a trilobite from the
Mississippian period (photo courtesy of K. McCarney-Castle)

 Fossils found in many rock layers have lived for long

periods of time and cannot be used as index fossils.
 Absolute Age Dating
 Absolute ages, or geochronometric ages, of rock can be assigned to the geologic time scale on the
basis of properties of atoms that make up the minerals of a rock. Unlike relative dating, which
relies on sequencing of rock layers (i.e. younger vs. older), absolute dating can produce an actual
age in years.
 The number of neutrons in a nucleus of an atom determines the isotope of the element, just like
the number of protons determines the identity of an element.
 Some isotopes are unstable and break down into other isotopes through a process called
radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is characterized by beta decay, where a neutron changes into
a proton by giving off an electron, and alpha decay, when isotopes give off 2 protons and 2
neutrons in the form of an alpha particle and changes into a new product. The original isotope is
called the parent and the new isotope product is called the daughter.
 What is a Half-Life?
 Each radioactive parent isotope decays to its daughter product at a specific and measurable
rate. This measurement is reported in half-lives. The half-life of an isotope is the time it
takes for ½ of the parent atoms in the isotope to decay.
 If an isotope has a half-life of 4000 years, then after 4000 years ½ of the parent isotope
remains. After another 4000 years, ½ of ½ remains, or ¼ of the original amount of parent
isotope. In another 4000 years (12,000 years total), ½ more of the remaining amount decays,
so after 3 half-lives, there only remains 1/8 (½ of ½ of ½) of the original parent isotope.
 If a scientist knows the half-life of the parent and measures the proportion of parent
isotope to daughter isotope, he/she can calculate the absolute age of the rock. This valuable
method is called radiometric dating.
Note: Radioactive isotopes can be found in the rock record because radioactive
isotopes are incorporated into the crystals of igneous rock as it cools. 13
 Radioactive Decay
100%
50%
93.75%
Scientists used the proportion of parent
75% 87.5%
material remaining to the proportion of
daughter material produced in order to
50% predict the age of the rock. During each half-
25%
12.5%
life, only one-half of the parent material
6.25%
decays to the daughter product.
DECAY
PARENT DAUGHTER
 Isotopes with very long half-lives are not suitable for dating rocks younger than ~1 million years
because there are too few daughter atoms to be measured accurately.
 Experimental error limits measurements to those rocks younger than about 12 half-lives of the
isotope used.
Radiocarbon Dating
 Radiocarbon dating is a common method used to date anything that was once alive (including
plants) and up to 70,000 years old.
 All living things take in carbon from the environment in the form of carbon-12 and carbon-14.
When an organism dies, carbon intake stops and the carbon-14 begins to decay at a known rate.
Scientists can determine how much C-14 remains in an organism by measuring radiation emitted
by the C-14 isotopes.
 Carbon dating can be used on wood, plants, humans, and even old paper made out of papyrus.
 The half-life of C-14 is 5,730 years. Because of this, it should not be used with material older than
~70,000 years or 12 half-lives.
 Commonly used radioactive isotopes
Parent Daughter half-life Mineral or Material

Uranium238 Lead 206 4.56 BY Zircon, Uraninite, Pitchblende

Uranium 235 Lead 207 704 MY Zircon, Uraninite, Pitchblende

Potassium 40 Argon 40 1.251 BY Muscovite, biotite, hornblende, K-feldspar,

volcanic rock, glauconite, conodonts
Rubidium 87 Sr 87 48.8 BY K-mica, K-feldspar, Biotite, Metamorphics

Thorium 230 Lead 206 75 KY Ocean sediments

Thorium 232 Lead 208 1.39 BY Zircon, Uraninite, Pitchblende

Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14 5730 yr Wood, bone, shell

KY- thousand years. MY- million years. BY- billion years

Uranium-Lead decay series (U-Pb series)

 Unlike carbon-14 dating, uranium dating cannot be used to date formerly living things;
however, it is the most commonly used method in igneous rock dating because of the abundance
of zircon minerals.
 The subscripts of 235 and 238 are the atomic mass numbers of the element. Though each
isotope has 92 protons in its nucleus, U-235 has 143 neutrons and U-238 has 146 neutrons.
 Igneous rocks, or the magma from which it was formed, often intrudes overlying sedimentary
rocks. By dating the magma, one can get at least a minimum age for the sedimentary rock.
15
 How Old is Old?
 From the time of Hutton, scientists were convinced that the earth was much older than the 6000
years predicted by the religious scholars.
 Charles Lyell tried to estimate the age of the earth through the amount of evolution
exhibited by marine mollusks in a specific time system.
 Another method was to estimate the rate of deposition for sedimentary rocks.
 Sir Edmund Halley proposed to estimate the age of the earth using salt content of the
oceans, assuming that the oceans were once non-saline and that salt addition to the oceans
corresponded in some linear fashion with time.
 Lord Kelvin estimated the age of the Earth at 24-40 million years. He proposed that the
Earth has been cooling since it formed, and he calculated the rate of cooling using principles of
heat conduction.
 It wasn’t until Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896 and Madame Curie isolated
radium 2 years later that people realized that the Earth had it’s own source of heat. Thus it
became one of the most useful tools for future scientists.
 The oldest rocks found so far on Earth (based on zircon grains from Australia) have
been dated at 4.1-4.2 billion years.
 Meteorites have also been dated at 4.6 billion years. Meteorites are considered to be
remnants of a plant or asteroid that originally formed at the same time as the Earth, so
that the Earth’s age is currently estimated to be 4.6 billion years.
 The oldest fossils are preserved remains of stromatolites, which are layers of lithified
blue-green algae, dating to approximately 3.5 billion years before present.
16
Eons:
Precambrian: Earliest span of time
Phanerozoic: Everything since

Eras:
Periods:
Paleozoic
Cambrian
Mesozoic
Ordovician
Cenozoic
Silurian
Paleozoic Devonian
“Age of
Invertebrates” Carboniferous
(Missipp. & Pennsylvanian)
Epochs:
Permian
Paleocene
Triassic
Mesozoic Eocene
Jurassic
“Age of Reptiles” Oligocene
Cretaceous
Paleogene
Cenozoic Miocene
Neogene
“Age of Pliocene
Mammals”
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Holocene
We are living in the Phanerozoic Eon, Cenozoic Era, Quaternary
Period, Holocene Epoch……..BUT
17
A new concept has been gaining
momentum since it’s introduction by
Paul Crutzen in 2000. He proposed that
the Holocene Epoch is over and a new
geological epoch called the Anthropocene
has begun.
Mans’ impact on the Earth’s climate and
ecosystems since the Industrial
Revolution is quite evident. Support for
this theory comes from data derived from
glacial ice cores showing the growth in
greenhouse gases starting from the
1800’s.
Does this justify a new Epoch on the
Geological Time Scale? Some scientists
question this, however, there is no doubt
that there has been a shift in Earth’s
atmosphere and biosphere as we emerge
from the most recent ice age which ended
approximately 10,000 years ago.

This is strong indication that

geologic time is not a thing of the
past!
Photo used with permission from the cover of GSA
Today, Geological Society of America, Vol. 18, 2, Feb.
2008.
 The Earth Through Time
Illustrate the vast diversity of life that has been present on Earth over time by using the geologic time scale.

The Proterozoic:
 No life possible as the Earth initially forms 4.6
billion years ago.
 Simple, single-celled forms of life appear 3.8
billion years ago, becoming more complex and
successful over the next 3 billion years:
Prokaryotes then Eukaryotes
 Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen
(photosynthesis)
 Land masses gather to make up a continent
called “Rodinia”

Cambrian:
 Explosion of life
 All existing phyla come into being at this time
 Life forms in warm seas as oxygen levels rise
enough to support life
 Dominant animals: Marine invertebrates
(trilobites and brachiopods)
 Supercontinent Gondwana forms near the South
Pole (note position of present-day Florida)

PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
71
19
Ordovician:
 The 1st animals with bones appear, though
dominant animals are still trilobites, brachiopods
and corals
 The beginning of the construction of South
Carolina
 A very cold time in Earth’s history: there was a
great extinction due to ice caps in present-day
Africa
 Four main continents: Gondwana, Baltica,
Siberia and Laurentia

Silurian:
 First land plants appear and land animals follow
 Laurentia collides with Baltica and closes
Iapetus Sea.
 Coral reefs expand and land plants begin to
colonize barren land.
 First millipede fossils and sea scorpions
(Euryptides) found in this period

PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher

Scotese and are under copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002 72
20
Devonian (Age of the Fish)
 Pre-Pangea forms. Dominant animal:
fish
 Oceans still freshwater and fish
migrate from southern hemisphere to
North America.
 Present-day Arctic Canada was at the
equator and hardwoods began to grow.
 Amphibians, evergreens and ferns
appear
 The Acadian Orogeny, leading to S.C.
metamorphism
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
Mississippian: copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
 First seed plants appear
 Much of North America is
covered by shallow seas and sea
life flourishes (bryoza, brachipods,
blastoids)

Pennsylvanian:
 Modern North America begins
to form
 Ice covers the southern
hemisphere and coal swamps
formed along equator.
 Lizards and winged insects first
appear. 21
Permian:
 Last period of the Paleozoic
 Pangea forms. Reptiles spread
across continents.
 The Appalachians rise
 90% of Earth’s species become
extinct due to volcanism in Siberia.
This marks the end of trilobites,
ammonoids, blastoids, and most
fish.

Triassic:
 First dinosaurs appear
 First mammals- small rodents appear
 Life and fauna re-diversify
 Rocky Mountains form.
 First turtle fossil from this period
 Pangea breaks apart

PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002

22
Jurassic:
 Pangea still breaking apart
 Dinosaurs flourish “Golden age of
dinosaurs”
 First birds appear
 North America continues to rotate away
from Africa

Cretaceous:
 T-Rex develops
 First snakes and primates appear
 Deciduous trees and grasses
common
 First flowering plants
 Mass extinction marks the end of
the Mesozoic Era, with the demise
of dinoaurs and 25% of all marine
life.
PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under copyright of
C.R. Scotese, 2002
Tertiary:
 First horses appear and tropical
plants dominate (Paleocene)
 Grasses spread and whales, rhinos,
elephants and other large mammals
develop. Sea level rises and
limestone deposits form in S.C.
(Eocene)
 Dogs, cats, and apes appear
(Oligocene)
 Horses, mastadons, camels, and
tigers roam free in S.C. (Miocene)
 Hominids develop and the Grand
Canyon forms (Pliocene)

Quaternary:
 Modern humans develop and ice
sheets are predominant- Ice age
(Pleistocene)
 Holocene Humans flourish
(Holocene)

PaleoMaps used with permission from Christopher Scotese and are under
copyright of C.R. Scotese, 2002
 Adaptation and ‘Survival of the Fittest’
Explain how biological adaptations of populations enhance their survival in a particular environment.

 Some populations, whether mammals, amphibians, or reptiles are better adapted to living
conditions than others, even within the same species, so they are better at surviving than others.
Because their chances of surviving are increased, their chances of reproducing offspring are better,
and their offspring will possess the same strong traits. This is the basis for natural selection over
long periods of time.
 Natural selection refers to the process where over long periods of time, helpful variations can
appear in a species while “unfavorable” one disappear. For example, a group of frogs living on the
rocky side of an island may, over time, adapt a gray skin color to help blend in with their rocky
environment in while a group of frogs living on the more lush, vegetated side of the island may
develop a green skin color to blend in with their particular environment. Even though the frogs are
of the same species, they are able to incorporate different traits to help them survive in their
environments.
 The theory of natural selection, sometimes referred to as ‘Survival of the fittest,’ started with
Charles Darwin’s 5-year trip around the world on the HMS Beagle. During this time, he noticed
variations within the same species, especially in the Galapagos Turtles, and noted that some of the
variations were favorable and some were not. He concluded that not all members of a species
survive, which is why the world is not overpopulated by any one species. The practicality of their
adaptation must be a determining factor for who survives and who does not. He published his
findings on his return to England and wrote the classic work “The Origin of Species.”
 Punctuated Events Through Geologic Time
Explain how Earth’s history has been influenced by catastrophes (including the impact of an asteroid or comet, climatic
changes, and volcanic activity) that have affected the conditions on Earth and the diversity of its life-forms.

 Environmental changes on earth are usually an indicator of a species extinction (or a

species addition). These changes can be brought about by an asteroid or comet impact,
volcanic activity, or climatic changes like the onset of ice ages.

1. Impact:
 The most well-known extinction is the extinction of the dinosaurs. Scientists think
that this mass extinction was caused by a large comet that impacted the earth in present-
day Mexico, causing a massive quantity of dust to rise up into the atmosphere, possibly
blocking out the sun and affecting the oxygen levels Earth. Many plants died, and the
animals that depended on those plant for life died as well. In addition, it may have
become very cold in a short period of time.
 It took millions of years for the earth to recover, and when it did, the large dinosaurs
were gone forever.
 Certain species of birds, however, did survive and began to flourish. Birds are
thought to be direct descendants of dinosaurs.

78
2. Climate Changes
 Climate has always been a constantly changing phenomenon. The earliest atmosphere was
devoid of free oxygen, and it wasn’t until the earliest life forms evolved that the present-day
atmosphere began to form approximately 600 million years ago.
 During the Paleozoic, warm shallow seas and tropical climates were common. Life forms that
could not adapt to these conditions disappeared.
 Throughout the Mesozoic era, plate movement shifted the continents and only the animals and
plants with the greatest ability to adapt could survive the extreme changes in temperatures that
occurred as a consequence. Plants with seed coverings and animals with constant internal
temperatures (warm-blooded) lived during this era.
 Climate continued to change during the Cenozoic and continues to change to this day, as issues
of “Global Warming” have been on the fore-front for over a decade. It was only ~12,000 years ago
that the world was in an “ice age” mode. Also, many mountain ranges formed during this era,
causing climate differences due to elevation changes.
 Ice ages have occurred many times in Earth’s history. Climate shifts like these may be caused by
magnetic polar reversals or variation in the tilt of the earth (called Milankovitch cycles). Obviously,
not all life can adapt to the extreme cold. Also, not all animals can adapt to the warming climate at
the end of an ice age, which probably contributed to the extinction of the wooly mammoth.
79
3. Volcanic Activity

 Significant volcanic activity, which produced ash clouds in the air and lava flows on the Earth’s
surface, was common during the Precambrian. It was extremely hot, and most life forms could not
exist in these conditions.
 Volcanism is a common byproduct of tectonic plate collision. If one plate collides with another
and is pulled underneath it, a subduction zone is formed underneath the plates and a volcanic arc
forms on the Earth’s surface. During the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, continents were regularly
colliding with each other and volcanism was common. Plate boundaries are still the most common
sites of volcanoes today.
 If volcanism is significant enough to produce mass
quantities of ash and volatile gases, wind can carry
these into the upper atmosphere all around the world,
potentially enveloping the earth in semi-darkness and
reducing insulation on earth. Obviously, this would
have an effect on all living things on Earth.
 A cause and effect phenomenon, catastrophic events
impact life on Earth, whether through an extinction or
creation of new traits for adaptation to already
existing plants and animals.

80
 Why Extinction?
Summarize the factors, both natural and man-made, that can contribute to the extinction of a species.

 Extinction of a species occurs when no more members of a particular species remains. Extinction
through time is very common, and, in fact, nearly 90 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth
are now extinct.
 Organisms that cannot survive a catastrophic or significant change in earth’s climate usually
become extinct. Extinctions are a way of clearing the path for new kinds of life that is potentially
more advanced. This is a natural part of life’s process.
 Natural phenomena that can contribute to the extinction of a species include global climate
changes, volcanic explosions, and celestial impacts.
 The influence of humans on the environment do not
include comet impacts or volcanism; however, man has
caused extinctions all the same. Over the past few
hundred years, man has cut rainforests and woodland
forests, destroying natural habitats. Pollution from
industrial plants and vehicles has also affected the air
we breath and contributed to greenhouse gases, which
drive global warming. We are looking at the potential
extinction of many species due to this warming trend.
 In addition to threatening less-adaptive creatures
than ourselves, man is negatively impacting biological
resources that our own species need. Man can adapt to
many things with the help of technology.
81
 The study of Fossils
Summarize how scientists study Earth’s past environment and diverse life-forms by examining different types of fossils
(including molds, casts, petrified fossils, preserved and carbonized remains of plants and animals and trace fossils)

 A fossil is the preserved remains of an organism that has died. Fossils tell scientists,
called paleontologists, about living things such as their biology and environmental
conditions over earth’s history through the rock record. In addition, they give clues to
the conditions of the earth (i.e. climate) at the time that the fossil was preserved and
possibly relate changes of an organism over time.
 Definitions of fossil types:
Mold fossils: when sediments bury an organism and the sediment hardens into rock. The
organism decays slowly inside the rock, leaving an cavity in the shape of the organism.
 Cast fossil: The cavity or mold mentioned above can filled in with mud. When the mud
hardens, it takes on the shape of the organism.
 Petrified fossil or permineralized fossil: Minerals like calcium can soak into the buried
remains of an organism. The mineral replaces the remaining bone and changes it into rock.
 Carbonized fossil: When organism parts are pressed between layers of mud or clay that
hardens over time, squeezing the decaying organism away and leaving a carbon imprint in
the rock, since all living things contain carbon.
 Trace fossil: When the mud or sand hardens into rock where a footprint, trail or burrow
was left behind.
 The fossil record, like the rock record, is an important record for understanding life on
earth before the dawn of man.
 Extinctions and new life forms are also found within the fossil record.
 Fossils can also show structural similarities and differences in organisms over time
revealing the diversity of life forms on earth. Nearly 90 percent of organisms that have
lived on the earth are now extinct.

A trilobite cast from the

Mississippian Period. Extinct. Brachiopods in a sandstone matrix and an
Carbon imprint of fish individual brachiopod cast. Extinct.
remains, age unknown

Ammonite fossil
(cast), cut and
polished. Related
Belemnite fossil (cast), cut
to present-day
and polished. Related to
snail. Extinct.
present-day squid. Extinct.
End of Chapter 2

Long Quiz on the next meeting

Coverage : Chapters 1 & 2