PAKET I

“Thermoregulation”
Mammal and birds generally maintain body temperature within a narrow rage (36 – 380 C from
most mammals and 39 – 420 C for most birds) that is usually considerably warmer than the environment.
Because heat always flows from a warm object to cooler surroundings, birds and mammals must
counteract the constant heat loss. This maintenance of warm body temperature depends on several key
adaptations. The most basic mechanism is the high metabolic rate of endothermy itself. Endotherms can
produce large amounts of metabolic heat that replace the flow of heat to the environment, and they can
vary heat production to match changing rates of heat loss. Heat production is increased by such muscle
activity as moving or shivering. In some mammals, certain hormones can cause mithochondria to
increase their metabolic activity and produce heat instead of ATP. This non-shivering thermogenesis
(NST) takes place throughout the body, but some mammals also have a tissue called brown fat in the neck
and between the shoulders that is specialized for rapid heat production. Through shivering and NST,
mammals and birds in cold environments can increase their metabolic heat production by as much as 5 to
10 times above the minimal levels that occurs in warm conditions.
Another major thermoregulatory adaptation that evolved in mammals and birds is insulation
(hair, feathers, and fat layers), which reduces the flow or heat and lowers the energy cost of keeping
warm. Most land mammals and birds react to cold by raising their fur or feathers, thereby trapping a
thicker layer of air. Humans rely more on a layer of fat just beneath the skin as insulation; goose bumps
are a vestige of hair-raising left over form our furry ancestors.
 Vasodilation and vasoconstriction also regulate heat exchange and may contribute to regional
temperature differences within the animal. For example, heat loss from a human is reduced
when arms and legs cool to several degrees below the temperature of the body core, where
most vital organs are located.
Hair loses most of its insulating power when wet. Marine mammals such as whales and
seals have a very thick layer of insulation fat called blubber, just under the skin. Marine mammals
swim in water colder than their body core temperature, and many species spend at least part of
the year in nearly freezing polar seas. The loss of heat to water occurs 50 to 100 times more
rapidly than heat loss to air, and the skin temperature of a marine mammal is close to water
temperature. Even so, the blubber insulation is so effective that marine mammals maintain body
core temperatures of about 36 – 380 C with metabolic rates about the same as those of land
mammals of similar size. The flippers or tail of a whale or seal lack insulating blubber, but
countercurrent heat exchangers greatly reduce heat loss in these extremities, as they do in the
legs of many birds.
Through metabolic heat production, insulation, and vascular adjustments, birds and
mammals are capable of astonishing feats of thermoregulation. For example, small birds called
chickadees, which weigh only 20 grams, can remain active and hold body temperature nearly
constant at 400 C in environmental temperature as low as -400 C – as long as they have enough
food to supply the large amount of energy necessary for heat production.
1. According to paragraph 1, the most fundamental adaptation to maintain body temperature is ______.
A. The heat generated by the metabolism
B. A shivering reflex in the muscles
C. Migration to a warmer environment
D. Higher caloric intake to match heat loss
E. The heat stimulated by the environment
2. Based on information in paragraph 1, which of the following best explain the term “thermogenesis”?
A. Heat loss that must be reversed
B. Adaptation of brown fat tissue in the neck
C. The maintenance of healthy environmental conditions
D. The adaptation of healthy environmental situations
E. Conditions that affect the metabolism
3. In paragraph 2, the author explains the concept of vasodilation and vasoconstriction by _____.
A. Describing the evolution in our ancestors
B. Giving an example of heat loss in the extremities
C. Comparing the process in humans and animals
D. Identifying various types of insulation
E. Comparing the process among humans
4. According to the paragraph 3, why do many marine animals require a layer of blubber?
A. Because marine animals have lost their hair during evolution
B. Because heat is lost in water twice as fast as it is in air
C. Because dry hair does not insulate marine animals
D. Because they are so large that they require more insulation
E. Because wet hair insulate marine animals
5. Why does the author mention chickadees in paragraph 4?
A. To discuss an animal that regulates heat very well
B. To demonstrate why chickadees have to eat so much
C. To mention an exception to the rules of thermoregulation
D. To give a reason for heat production in small animals
E. To determine animal which lives in the sea
 “Geothermal Energy”
Geothermal energy is natural heat from the interior of the Earth that is converted
to heat buildings and generate electricity. The idea of harnessing Earth’s internal heat is
not new. As early as 1904, geothermal power was used in Italy. Today, Earth’s natural
internal heat is being used to generate electricity in 21 centuries, including Russia, Japan,
New Zealand, Iceland, Mexico, Ethiopia, Guatemala, El Salvador, the Philippines, and the
United States. Total worldwide production is approaching 9,000 MW (equivalent to nine
large modern coal burning or nuclear power plants) – double the amount in 1980. Some
40 million people today receive their electricity from geothermal energy at a cost
competitive with that of other energy sources. In El Salvador, geothermal energy is
supplying 30% of the total electric energy used. However, at the global level, geothermal
energy supplies less than 0.15% of the total energy supply.
Geothermal energy may be considered a nonrenewable energy source when rates
of extraction are greater than rates of natural replenishment. However, geothermal
energy has its origin in the natural heat production within Earth, and only a small fraction
of the vast total resource base is being utilized today. Although most geothermal energy
production involves the tapping of high heat sources, people are also using the low-
temperature geothermal energy of groundwater in some applications.
 Geothermal Systems
The average heat flow from the interior of the Earth is very low, about 0.06
W/m2. This amount is trivial compared with the 177 W/m2 from solar heat at the
surface in the United States. However, in some areas, heat flow is sufficiently high
to be useful for producing energy. For the most part, areas of high heat flow are
associated with plate tectonic boundaries. Oceanic ridge systems (divergent plate
boundaries) and areas where mountains are being uplifted and volcanic island arcs
are forming (convergent plate boundaries) are areas where this natural heat flow is
anomalously high.
On the basis of geological criteria, several types of hot geothermal systems
(with temperatures greater than about 80o C, or 1760 F) have been defined, and
the resource base is larger that that of fossil fuels and nuclear energy combined. A
common system for energy development is hydrothermal convection,
characterized by the circulation of steam and/or hot water that transfers heat
depths to the surface.
 Geothermal Energy and the Environment
The environmental impact of geothermal energy may not be as extensive as that
of other sources of energy, but it can be considerable. When geothermal energy is
developed at a particular site, environmental problems include on-site noise, emissions
of gas, and disturbance of the land at drilling sites, disposal sites, roads and pipelines, and
power plants. Development of geothermal energy does not require large-scale
transportation of raw materials or refining of chemicals, as development of fossil fuel
does. Furthermore, geothermal does not produce the atmospheric pollutants associated
with burning fossil fuels or the radioactive waste associated with nuclear energy.
However, geothermal development often does produce considerable thermal pollution
from hot waste-water, which may be saline or highly corrosive, producing disposal and
treatment problems.
Geothermal power is not very popular in some locations among some people. For
instance, geothermal energy has been produced for years on the island of Hawaii, where
active volcanic processes provide abundant near-surface heat. There is controversy,
however, over further exploration and development of geothermal energy degrade the
tropical forest as developers construct roads, build facilities, and drill wells. In addition,
religious and cultural issues in Hawaii relate to the use of geothermal energy. For
example, some people are offended by using the “breath and water of Pele” (the volcano
goddess) to make electricity. This issue points out the importance of being sensitive to
the values and cultures op people where development is planned.
 Future of Geothermal Energy
At present, geothermal energy supplies only a small fraction of the electrical
energy produced in the United States. However, if developed, known geothermal
resources in the United States could produce about 20,000 MW which is about
10% of the electricity needed for the western states. Geo-hydrothermal resources
not yet discovered could conservatively provide four times that amount
(approximately 10% of total U.S. electricity capacity), about equivalent to the
electricity produced from water power today.
6. In paragraph 1, the author introduces the concept of geothermal energy by _____.
A. Explaining the history of this energy source worldwide
B. Arguing that this energy source has been tried unsuccessfully
C. Persuading the world to utilize the use of the geothermal energy
D. Comparing the production with that of other energy sources
E. Describing the alternatives for generating electric power
7. What is true about the geothermal energy worldwide?
A. Because it is a new idea, very few countries are developing geothermal energy sources.
B. Only countries in the Southern Hemisphere are using geothermal energy on a large scale.
C. Until the cost of geothermal energy becomes competitive, it will not be used globally.
D. It is the most popular energy in the world.
E. Geothermal energy is already being used in a number of nations, but it is not yet a major source of power.
8. The word approaching in the passage is closest in meaning to _____.
A. Hardly
B. Mostly
C. Entirely
D. Nearly
E. Briefly
9. According to the paragraph 6, the production of geothermal energy in Hawaii is controversial for all of the following reasons EXCEPT _____.
A. The volcanoes in Hawaii could be disrupted by the rapid release of geothermal energy
B. The rainforest might be damaged during the construction of the geothermal energy plant
C. The using of geothermal energy is opposing the beliefs of the native people in Hawai.
D. The native people are concerned that geothermal energy is disrespectful to their cultural traditions
E. Some Hawaiians oppose using geothermal energy because of their religious beliefs.
10. What is the author’s opinion of geothermal energy?
A. Geothermal energy has some disadvantages, but it is probably going to be used in the future.
B. Geothermal energy is a source that should be explored further before large-scale production begins.
C. Geothermal energy should be used because it is non-renewable energy.
D. Geothermal energy offers an opportunity to supply a significant amount of power in the future.
E. Geothermal energy should replace waterpower in the production of electricity for the United States.
 “Symbiotic Relationships”
Symbiosis is a close, long-lasting physical relationship between two different
species. In other words, the two species are usually in physical contact and at least one of
them derives some sort of benefit from this contact. There are three different categories
of symbiotic relationships: parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism, known as the parasite, lives in
or on another organism, known as the host, from which it derives nourishment.
Generally, the parasite is much smaller than the host. Although the host is harmed by the
interaction, it is generally not killed immediately by the parasite, and some host
individuals may live a long time and be relatively little affected by their parasites. Some
parasites are much more destructive than others, however. Newly established
parasite/host relationships are likely to be more destructive than those that have a
long-evolutionary history. With a long-standing interaction between the parasite and the
host, the two species generally evolve in such a way that they can accommodate one
another. It is not in parasite’s best interest to kill its host. If it does, it must find another.
Likewise, the host evolves defenses against the parasite, often reducing the harm done by
the parasite to a lever the host can tolerate.
 Parasites that live on the surface of their hosts are known as ectoparasites. Fleas,
lice, and some molds and mildews are examples of ectoparasites. Many other parasites,
like tapeworms, malaria parasites, many kinds of bacteria, and some fungi, are called
endoparasites because they live inside the bodies of their hosts. A tapeworm lives in the
intestines of its host where it is able to resist being digested and make use of the
nutrients in the intestine.
Even plants can be parasites. Mistletoe is a flowering plant that is parasitic on
trees. It establishes itself on the surface of a tree when a bird transfers the sees to the
tree. It then grows down into the water-conducting tissues of the tree and uses the water
and minerals it obtains from these tissues to support its own growth.
If the relationship between organisms is one in which one-organism benefits while
the other is not affected, it is called commensalism. It is possible to visualize a parasitic
relationship evolving into a commensal one. Since parasites generally evolve to do as
little harm to their host as possible and the host is combating the negative effects of the
parasite, they might eventually evolve to the point where the host is not harmed at all.
There are many examples of commensal relationships. Orchids often use trees as a
surface upon which to grow. The tree is not harmed of helped, but the orchid needs a
surface upon which to establish itself and also benefits by being close to the top of the
tress where it can get more sunlight and rain. Some mosses, ferns, and many vines also
make use of the surface of trees in this way.
 In the ocean, many sharks have a smaller fish known as a remora attached to
them. Remoras have a sucker on the top of their heads that they can use to attach to the
shark. In this way, they can hitchhike a ride as the shark swims along. When the shark
feeds, the remora frees itself and obtains small bits of the food that the shark misses.
Then, the remora reattaches. The shark does not appear to be positively or negatively
affected by remoras.
Mutualism is another kind of symbiotic relationship and is actually beneficial to
both species involved. In many mutualistic relationships, the relationship is obligatory;
the species cannot live without each other. In others, the species can exist separately but
are more successful when they are involved in a mutualistic relationship. Some species of
Acacia, a thorny tree, provide food in the form of sugar solutions in little structures on
their stems. Certain species of ants feed on the solutions and live in the tree, which they
will protect from other animals by attacking any animal that begins to feed on the tree.
Both organisms benefit; the ants receive food and a place to live, and the tree is
protected from animals that would us it as food.
One soil nutrient that is usually a limiting factor for the plant growth is nitrogen. Many
kinds of plants, such as beans, clover, and elder trees, have bacteria that live in their
roots in little nodules. The roots from these nodules when they are infected with certain
kinds of bacteria. The bacteria do not cause disease but provide the plants with nitrogen-
containing molecules that the plants provide, and the plants benefit from the nitrogen
they receive.
11. According to paragraph 3, how do ectoparasites survive _____.
A. They live in mod and mildew on their hosts.
B. They digest food in the intestines of their hosts.
C. They live on the nutrients in their bacterial hosts.
D. They live inside their hosts.
E. They inhabit the outside parts of their hosts.
12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the
meaning of leave out the important information.
A. A parasite is less likely to destroy the host when it attaches itself at first.
B. Parasites that have lived on a host for along time have probably done a lot of damage.
C. The relationship between creatures in the world.
D. The most destructive phase for a host is when the parasite first invades it.
E. The relationship between a parasite and a host will evolve over time.
13. In paragraph 7, why does the author use the example of the Acacia tree?
A. To demonstrate how ants survive by living in trees.
B. To show how the species can disturb one another.
C. To explain how two species can benefit from contact.
D. To show the relationship between plants and animals.
E. To present a problem that occurs often in nature.
14. According to paragraph 8, how does bacteria affect beans and clover?
A. It causes many of the plants to die.
B. It limits the growth of young plants.
C. It decreases the oxygen supply.
D. It supplies nitrogen to the crops.
E. It infects the roots with harmful nodules.
15. In which of the following chapters would this passage most probably appear?
A. Environment and Organisms
B. Pollution and Policies
C. Sociology and Society
D. Human Influences on Ecosystems
E. Energy and Resources
 “Migration from Asia”
The Asian Migration hypothesis is today supported by most of specified evidence. The
first “hard” data linking American Indians with Asians appeared in the 1980s with the finding that
Indians and northeast Asians share a common and distinctive pattern in the arrangement of the
teeth. But perhaps the most compelling support for the hypothesis comes from genetic research.
Studies comparing the DNA variation of populations around the word consistently demonstrate
the close genetic relationship of the two populations, and recently genetics studying a virus
sequestered in the kidneys of all humans found that the strain of virus carried by Navajos and
Japanese is nearly identical, while that carried by Europeans and Africans is quite different.
The migration could have begun over a land bridge connecting the continents. During the
last Ice Age 70,000 to 10,000 years ago, huge glaciers locked up massive volumes of water and
sea levels were as much as 300 feet lower than today. Asia and North America were joined by a
huge subcontinent ice free, treeless grassland, 750 miles wide. Geologists have named this area
Beringia, from Bering Straits. Summers there were warm, winters were cold, dry and almost
snow-free. This was a perfect environment for large mammals-mammoth and mastodon, bison,
horse, reindeer, camel, and saiga (a goatlike antelope). Small bands of Stone Age hunter-
gatherers were attracted by these animal populations, which provided them not only with food
but also with hides for clothing and shelter, dung for fuel, and bones for tools and weapons.
Accompanied by a husky-like species of dog, hunting bands gradually moved as far east as the
Yukon River basin on northern Canada where field excavations have uncovered the fossilized
jawbones of several dogs and bone tools estimated to be about 27,000 years old.
 Other evidence suggests that the migration from Asia began about 30,000 years ago –
around the same time that Japan and Scandinavian were being settled. This evidence based on
blood type. The vast majority of modern Native Americans have type O blood and a few have
type A, but almost non have type B. Because modern Asian populations include all three blood
types, however, the migrations must have begun before the evolution of type B, which
geneticists believer occurred about 30,000 years ago.
By 25,000 years ago, human communities were established in western Beringia, which is
present-day Alaska. But access to the south was blocked by a huge glacial sheet covering much of
what is today Canada. How did hunters get over those 2,000 miles of deep ice? The argument is
that climate began to warm with the passing of the Ice Age, and about 13,000 B.C.E. glacial
melting creating an ice-free corridor along the eastern front range of the Rocky Mountains. Soon
hunters of big game had reached the Great Plains.
16. The word distinctive in the passage is closest in meaning to _____.
A. New
B. Simple
C. Different
D. Significant
E. Particular
17. According to paragraph 2, why did Stone Age tribes begin to migrate into Beringia?
A. To intermarry with tribes living there
B. To trade with tribes that made tools
C. To hunt for animals in the area
D. To capture domesticated dogs
E. To trade animal with tribes that made tools
18. The phrase Accompanied by in the passage is closest in meaning to _____.
A. Found with
B. Joined by
C. Threatened by
D. Established in
E. Carried by
19. Why does the author mention blood types in paragraph 3?
A. Blood types offered proof that the migration had come from Scandinavia
B. The presence of type B in Native Americans was evidence of the migration
C. The blood typing was similar to data from both Japan and Scandinavia
D. Comparisons of blood types in Asia and Scandinavia which were evidence of the migration
E. Comparisons of blood types in Asia and North America established the data of migration
20. How did groups migrate into the Great Plains?
A. By walking on a corridor covered with ice
B. By using the path big game had made
C. By detouring around a huge ice sheet
D. By following a mountain trail of Rocky Mountains
E. By a mountain trail of Himalaya
PAKET 2
“Physical and Chemical Properties and Changes”
Sugar, water, and aluminum are different substances. Each substance has specific
properties that do not depend on the quantity of the substances. Properties that can be used to
identity or characterize a substance – and distinguish that substance from other substance – are
called characteristic properties. They are subdivided into two categories: physical properties and
chemical properties.
The characteristic physical properties of a substance are those that identify the substance
without causing a change in the composition of the substance. They do not depend on the
quantity of substance. Color, odor, density, melting point, boiling point, hardness, metallic luster
or shininess, ductility, malleability, and viscosity are all characteristic physical properties. For
example, aluminum is a metal that is both ductile and malleable. Another example of a physical
property is water. Whether a small pan of water is raised to its boiling point or a very large kettle
of water is raised to its boiling point, the temperature at which the water boils is the same value,
100 degrees C or 212 degrees F. similarly, the freezing point of water is 0 degrees C or 32 degrees
F. These values are independent of quantity.
Characteristic properties that relate to changes in the composition of a substance or to how it
reacts with other substances are called chemical properties. The following questions pertain to
the chemical properties of a substance.
• Does it burn in air?
• Does it decompose (break up into smaller substances) when heated?
• What happens when it is placed I an acid?
• What other chemical will it react with, and what substances are obtained from the reaction?

Characteristic physical and chemical properties – also called intensive properties – are
used to identify a substance. In addition to the characteristic physical properties already
mentioned, some intensive physical properties include the tendency to dissolve in water,
electrical conductivity, and density, which is the ration of mass to volume.
Additional intensive chemical properties include the tendency of a substance to react with
another substance, to tarnish, to corrode, to explode, or to act as a poison or carcinogen (cancer-
causing agent).
 Extensive properties of substances are those that depend on the quantity of the sample,
including measurements of mass, volume, and length. Whereas intensive properties help
identify or characterize a particular kind of matter, extensive properties relate to the amount
present.
If a lump of candle wax is cut or broken into smaller pieces, or it is melted (a chance of
state), the sample remaining is still candle was. When cooled, the melted wax returns to a solid.
In these examples, only a physical change has taken place; that is, the composition of the
substance was not affected.
When a candle is burned, there are both physical and chemical changes. After the candle
is lighted, the solid wax near the burning wick melts. This is a physical change; the composition of
the wax does not change as it goes from solid to liquid. Some of the wax is drawn into the
burning wick where a chemical change occurs. Here, wax in the candle flame reacts chemically
with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide gas and water vapor. In any chemical change, one
or more substances are used up while one or more new substances are formed. The new
substances produced have their own unique physical and chemical properties.
The apparent disappearance of something, like the candle wax, however, is not
necessarily a sign that we are observing a chemical change. For example, when water evaporates
form a glass and disappears, it has changed from a liquid to a gas (called water vapor), but both
forms it is water. This is a phase change (liquid to gas), which is a physical change. When
attempting to determine whether a change is physical or chemical, one should ask the critical
question: Has the fundamental composition of the substance changed? In a chemical change (a
reaction), it has, but in a physical change, it has not.
1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the
meaning or leave out important information.
A. Properties that are classified as intensive identity the type of substances and the extent of it presents in surrounding matter
B. The quantity of substance influences its extensive properties, but the characteristics of the substance define the intensive properties
C. Where the intensive and extensive properties are found in substances is important in identifying their characteristics
D. Both intensive and extensive properties tend to have quantitative rather qualitative characteristic present
E. The quantity of substance influences its intensive properties, but the characteristics of the substance define the extensive properties
2. In paragraph 8, the author contrasts the concepts of physical and chemical changes by _____.
A. Listing several types for each concept
B. Providing clear definitions for them
C. Identifying the common characteristics
D. Using a wax candle as an example
E. Defining the definition of a candle
3. What can be inferred about phase changes?
A. They are always chemical changes
B. They are sometimes physical changes
C. They are dependent on extensive properties
D. They usually produce new substances
E. They are dependent on intensive properties
4. According to the passage, the classification of characteristic properties as “physical” or “chemical” is determined by _____.
A. Whether there has been a change in the structure of the substance
B. What happens when the quantity of the substance is increased
C. Their classification as either extensive or intensive samples
D. The disappearance of a substance from one form to another
E. What happens when the quantity of the substance is decreased
5. All of the following are mentioned as characteristic physical properties EXCEPT _____.
A. Dissolving in water
B. Carrying an electrical change
C. Resisting continuous flow
D. Decomposing when heated
E. Liquidate in water
 “Civilization”
Between 4000 and 3000 B.C., significant technological developments began to transform
the Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled records to be kept, and the use of metals
marked a new level of human control over the environment and its resources. Already before
4000 B.C., craftspeople had discovered the metal-bearing rocks could be heated to liquefy
metals, which could then be cast in molds to produce tools and weapons that were more useful
than stone instruments. Although copper was the first metal to be utilized in producing tools,
after 4000 B.C. craftspeople in western Asia discovered that a combination of copper and tin
produced bronze, a much harder and more durable metal than copper. Its widespread use has
led historians to speak of a Bronze Age from around 3000 to 1200 B.C., when bronze was
increasingly replaced by iron.
At first, Neolithic settlements were hardly more than villages. But as their inhabitants
mastered the art of farming, they gradually began to give birth to more complex human
societies. As wealth increased, such societies began to develop armies and to build walled cities.
By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the concentration of larger numbers of people in the river
valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt was leading to a whole new pattern for human life.
 As we have seen, early human beings formed small groups that developed a
simple culture that enabled them to survive. As human societies grew and developed
greater complexity, a new form of human existence – called civilization – came into being.
A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a
number of common elements. Historians have identified a number of basic
characteristics of civilization, most of which are evident in the Mesopotamian and
Egyptian civilizations. These include (1) an urban revolution; cities become the focal
points of political, economic, social, cultural, and religious development; (2) a distinct
religious structure; the gods were deemed crucial to the community’s success, and
professional priestly classes, as stewards of the gods’ properly, regulated relations with
the gods; (3) new political and military structures; an organized government bureaucracy
arose to meet the administrative demands of the growing populations while armies were
organized to gain land and power; (4) a new social structure based on economic power;
while king and upper class of priests, political leaders, and warriors dominated, there also
existed large groups of free people (farmers, artisans, craftspeople) and the very bottom,
socially, a class of slaves; (5) the development of writing; kings, priests, merchants, and
artisans used writing to keep records; and (6) new forms of significant artistic and
intellectual activity, such as monumental architectural structures, usually religious,
occupied a prominent place in urban environment.
6. Which of the following is the best definition of a civilization?
A. Neolithic towns and cities
B. Types of complex cultures
C. An agricultural community
D. Large population centers
E. Kinds of not-complicated civilizations
7. According to paragraph 2, what happens as societies become more prosperous?
A. More goods are produced
B. Walled cities are built
C. Laws are instituted
D. The size of families increased
E. Digitalized towns are built
8. Why does the author mention Neolithic towns in paragraph 2?
A. To give an example of a civilization
B. To explain the invention of writing systems
C. To argue that they should be classified a villages
D. To contrast them with the civilizations that evolved
E. To give example of more complex human societies
9. According to paragraph 3, how was the class system structured?
A. An upper class and a lower class
B. Slaves, free people, and a ruling class
C. A king, an army, and slaves
D. Intellectuals and uneducated farmers and workers
E. Slaves, lower class, and a king
10. Which of sentences below best expresses the information in the highlighted statement in passage? The other choices change the meaning
or leave out important information.
A. Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations exhibit the majority of the characteristics identified by historians
B. The characteristics that historians have identified are not found in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures
C. Civilizations in Mesopotamia and Egypt were identified by historians who were studying the characteristics of early cultures
D. The identification of most historical civilizations includes either Egypt or Mesopotamia on the list
E. The characteristics that historians have identified are not discovered in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures
 “Life in Our Solar System”
Although we can imagine life based on something other than carbon chemistry, we know
of no examples to tell us how such life might arise and survive. We must limit our discussion to
life, as we know it and conditions it requires. The most important requirement is the presence of
liquid water, not only as part of the chemical reactions of life, but also as a medium to transport
nutrients and wastes within the organisms.
The water requirement automatically eliminates many worlds in our solar system. The
moon is airless, and although some data suggest ice frozen in the soil at its poles. It has never
had liquid water on its surface. In the vacuum of the lunar surface, liquid water would boil away
rapidly. Mercury too is airless and cannot have had liquid water on its surface for long periods of
time. Venus has some traces of water vapor in its atmosphere, but it is much too hot for liquid
water to survive. It there were any lakes or oceans of water on its surface when it was young,
they must have evaporated quickly even if life began there, no traces would be left now.
The inner solar system seems too hot, and the outer solar system seems too cold. The
Jovian planets have deep atmospheres, and at a certain level, they have moderated temperature
where water might condense into liquid droplets. But it seems unlikely that life could begin
there. The Jovian planets have no surfaces where oceans could nurture the beginning of life, and
currents in the atmosphere seem destined to circulate gas and water droplets from regions of
moderate temperature to other levels that are much too hot or too cold for life to survive.
 A few of the satellites of the Jovian planets might have suitable conditions for life.
Jupiter’s moon Europa seems to have a liquid-water ocean below its icy crust, and minerals
dissolved in that water would provide a rich broth of possibilities for chemical evolution.
Nevertheless, Europa is not a promising site to search for life because conditions may not have
remains stable for the billions of years needed for life to evolve beyond the microscopic stage. If
Jupiter’s moons interact gravitationally and modify their orbits, Europa may ha e been frozen
solid at some points in history.
Saturn’s moon Titan has an atmosphere of nitrogen, argon, and methane and may have
oceans of liquid methane and ethane on its surface. The chemistry of life that might crawl or
swim on such a world is unknown, but live there may be unlikely because of the temperature.
The surface of Titan is a deadly -1790C (-2900F). Chemical reactions occur slowly or not at all at
such low temperatures, so the chemical evolution needed to begin life may never have occurred
on Titan.
Mars is the most likely place for life in our solar system. The evidence, however, is not
encouraging. Meteorite ALH840001 was found on the Antarctic ice in 1984. It was probably part
of debris ejected into space by a large impact on Mars. ALH840001 is important because a team
of scientists studied it and announce in 1996 that it contained chemical and physical traces of
ancient life on Mars.
 Scientists were excited too, but being professionally skeptical, they began testing the
results immediately. In many cases, the results did not confirm that conclusion that life once
existed on Mars. Some chemical contamination from water on Earth has occurred, and some
chemicals in the meteorite may have originated without the presence of life. The physical
features that look like fossil bacteria may be mineral formations in the rock.
Spacecraft now visiting Mars may help us understand the past history of water there and
paint a more detailed picture of present conditions. Nevertheless, conclusive evidence may have
to wait until a geologist in a space suit can wander the dry streambeds of Mars cracking open
rocks and searching for fossils.
We are left to conclude that, so far as we know, our solar system is bare of life except for
Earth. Consequently, our search for life in the universe takes us to other planetary systems.
11. Which of the following statements about the water on Venus is true?
A. The water evaporated because of the high temperatures
B. The water became frozen in the polar regions
C. Only a little water is left in small lakes on the surface
D. Rain does not fall because there is no atmosphere
E. The water evaporated because of the modest temperatures
12. What can be inferred from the passage about the Jovian planets?
A. Some of the Jovian planets may have conditions that could support life
B. Jupiter is classified as one of the Jovian planets
C. Europa is the largest of the moons that revolve around Jupiter
D. The orbits of the Jovian planets have changed over time
E. Mars may have condition that could support life
13. According to paragraph 5, why would life on Titan be improbable?
A. It does not have an ocean
B. It is not a planet
C. It is too cold
D. It has a low atmosphere
E. It is the moon of Saturn
14. How will scientists confirm the existence of life on Mars?
A. By sending unmanned spacecraft to Mars
B. By looking at fossils on Mars
C. By viewing pictures taken of Mars
D. By studying the present conditions on Mars
E. By sending manned spacecraft to Mars
15. Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the author’s opinion about life in our solar system?
A. Life is probably limited to planets in the inner solar system
B. There is large body of evidence supporting life on Mars
C. There is little probability of life on other planets
D. We should explore our solar system for conditions that support life
E. On other planets, there is abundant possibility of life existence
 “Group Decision Making”
Committees, task forces, and ad hoc groups are frequently assigned to identify and recommend
decision alternatives or, in some cases, to actually make important decisions. In essence, a group is a tool
that can focus the experience and expertise of several people on a particular problem or situation. Thus, a
group offers the advantage of greater total knowledge. Groups accumulate more information, knowledge,
and facts than individuals and often consider more alternatives. Each person in the group is able to draw
on his or her unique education, experience, insights, and other resources and contribute those to the
group. The varied backgrounds, training levels, and expertise of group members also help overcome
tunnels vision by enabling the group to view the problem in more than one way.
Participation in-group decision-making usually leads to higher member satisfaction. People tend
to accept a decision more readily and to be better satisfied with it when they have participated in making
that decision. In addition people will better understand and be more committed to a decision in which
they have had a say than to decision made for them. As a result, such a decision is more likely to be
implemented successfully.
While groups have many potential benefits, we all know that they can also be frustrating. One
obvious disadvantage of group decision-making is the time required to make a decision. The time needed
for group discussion and the associated compromising and selecting of a decision alternative can be
considerable. Time costs money, so a waste of time becomes a disadvantage if a decision made by a group
could have been made just as effectively by an individual working alone. Consequently, group decisions
should be avoided when speed and efficiently are the primary considerations.
 A second disadvantage is that the group discussion may be dominated by and individual
or subgroup. Effectiveness can be reduced if one individual, such as the group leader, dominates
the discussion by talking too much or being closed to other points of view. Some group leaders
try to control the group and provide the major input. Such dominance can stifle other group
members’ willingness to participate and could cause decision alternatives to be ignored or
overlooked. All group members need to be encouraged and permitted to contribute.
Another disadvantage of group decision-making is that members may be less concerned
with the group’s goals than with their own personal goals. They may become so sidetracked in
trying to win an argument that they forget about group performance. On the other hand, a group
may try too hard to compromise and consequently may not make optimal decisions. Sometimes
this stems from the desire to maintain friendships and avoid disagreements. Often groups exert
tremendous social pressure on individuals to conform to established or expected patterns of
behavior. Especially when they are dealing with important and controversial issues, interacting
groups may be prone to phenomenon called groupthink.
16. In paragraph 1, the author states that groups frequently _____.
A. Generate more options than individuals
B. Agree on the way that the problem should be approached
C. Make recommendations instead of decisions
D. Are chosen to participate because of their experience
E. Individuals produce more information, knowledge, and facts than groups
17. According to paragraph 2, why do group decisions tend to be more successful?
A. When more people involved, there are more ideas from which to choose
B. People are more accepting of decisions when they have been involved in them
C. Implementing ideas is easier with a large number of people to help
D. People like to be participants in decisions making that are successful
E. When they haven’t participated in making the decisions, people tend to more accepting the decisions
18. The word considerable in the passage is closest in meaning to _____.
A. Valuable
B. Significant
C. Predictable
D. Unusual
E. Probable
19. The word consequently in the passage is closest in meaning to _____.
A. About now
B. Without doubt
C. Before long
D. As a result
E. Nevertheless
20. According to paragraph 3, group discussion can be problematic because _____.
A. Individual decisions are always more effective
B. It takes more time for a group to arrive at a decision
C. It costs more to pay all of the group members
D. Interaction among group members can be a problem
E. A group won’t take plenty of time to draw a final decision