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Chapter Five
Chapter Five
Chapter Five
SAMPLING
1 AUDIT SAMPLING
CONTENT:
1. Introduction
2. Sample Design
3. Audit Sampling
4. Classification of Audit Sampling Techniques
2
What is sampling ?
Why sampling ?
3
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Audit sampling involves application of compliance or
substantive tests to less than 100% of the items
within an account balance, class of transactions or
other population.
The use of sampling procedures is one of the reasons
that audit reports are regarded as expressions of
opinion, rather than absolute certifications of the
fairness of financial statements.
4
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sampling is the process of selecting a group of items
from a large group of items.
The selected group of items is known as sample.
Since the sample possesses the same characteristic as
the population, results of the evaluation of the sample
are used to draw conclusion about the population.
This is true if the sample is representative.
Sampling risk is the risk that the auditor’s conclusion
based on a sample might be different from the
conclusion they would reach if they examined every
item in the population. 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sampling risk is reduced by
increasing the size of the sample.
When sample size is 100% of the population, the
sample is by definition perfectly representative,
and sampling risk is eliminated entirely.
Large samples, however, are costly and time
consuming.
Thus, you have to balance the sampling risk
against the cost of using larger samples.
6
NONSAMPLING RISK
Nonsampling risk refers to the portion of audit
risk that is not due to examining only a portion of
the data.
Sources of nonsampling risk include:
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Auditors may also arrive at a wrong conclusion
because of nonsampling errors.
Examples of nonsampling errors include failure of the
auditor to apply appropriate procedures and failure of
the auditor to recognize errors in the documents or
transactions that are examined.
The risk related to nonsampling errors is referred to
as nonsampling risk.
You can reduce nonsampling risk through effective
planning and supervision of audit engagements.
8
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Audit sampling is used for both tests of
controls and for test of details of
transactions and balances.
In both cases, the plans may be either non statistical
or statistical.
Auditors use these different types of sampling to
select a representative of that population, to
obtain and evaluate evidence of some
characteristics of that population and to assist
in forming a conclusion concerning those
characteristics 9
5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
Sample design deals with how to determine the
sample size which is supposed to be representative of
the population under investigation and how the
samples are selected out of the population
systematically. The effort of sample design is to get
representative sample size and to select them in
systematic way without prejudice. Sampling involves
the following steps:
Sample design
Selection of the sample
Evaluation of the sample
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5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
To apply statistical sampling, you need to have
knowledge of statistics.
Therefore, statistical sampling involves cost of
training audit staff, designing sampling plans, and
selecting items for examination. Statistical sampling is
used if the following conditions are met:
The population to be tested must be homogenous—that is to say,
it must consist of items of the same kind, subject to the same level
of audit risk.
The population must be fairly large; otherwise, the benefits of the
technique will not be achieved. The expected error must be low.
The item in the population must be easily identifiable once
selected so that checking of the item chosen is easily carried
out. This means in practice the items such as invoices must be pre
numbered and filed in sequence.
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5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
When designing the sample which involves
determining the size and the technique of selecting the
sample, you have to consider the specific audit
objectives, the population from which you wish to
sample, the sampling methods.
The objective of testing the controls is to provide
reasonable assurance that internal controls are
operating effectively.
The objective of substantive test is to provide
reasonable assurance that account balances are not
materially misstated.
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5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
T
the population is a group of items sharing common
characteristics. Examples are all debtors at a balance
sheet date and all the goods and services received in a
year.
The essential feature of a population is that it must be
homogenous, i.e. composed of similar or uniform parts.
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5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
Method of selecting the sample: basically there are two
types of sample selection methods, namely
non probabilistic and
probabilistic sample selection methods where:
Non probabilistic sample selection methods are those
that do not meet the technical requirements for
probabilistic sample selection. Because these methods
are not based on Strict mathematical probabilities, the
representativeness of the sample may be difficult to
determine. The information content of the sample,
including its representative ness, will be based on the
knowledge and skill of the auditor in applying his or her
14
judgment in the circumstances.
The above is a
Non statistical Sampling Statistical Sampling comparison of non
statistical and
Auditor judgment isstatistical
sampling:
probability theory.
sample
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5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
When determining the sample size you have to
consider the sampling risk, the amount of error that
would be acceptable (tolerable error), and the extent to
which you expect to find error (expected error).
Auditors are faced with sampling risk in both tests of
control and substantive tests. The risk related with
test of controls is, is the risk of assessing control risk
too low or too high.
On the other hand, the risk associated with test of
controls is the risk of incorrect acceptance of the risk of
incorrect rejection.
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5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
If control risk is assessed to be low, the auditors would
rely more on the internal control system, and the sample
size will be small. The reverse is true if the auditor’s
assessment of control risk is high.
The risk of under reliance on internal control. This is the
possibility that the sample results will cause the auditors
to rely too little on a control procedure. Thus, control risk
is assessed at too high of a level.
The risk of over reliance on internal control. This more
important risk is the possibility that the sample results
will cause the auditors to erroneously place more reliance
upon an internal control procedure than is justified by
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the true effectiveness of that control. Thus control risk is
assessed at too low of a level.
5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
The risk of under reliance on the internal control
relates to the efficiency of the audit process. When the
sampling results cause the auditors to assess control
risk at a higher level than it actually is, the auditors
will perform more substantive testing than is
necessary in the circumstances.
This unnecessary testing reduces the efficiency of the
audit process, but it does not lessen the effectiveness of
the audit in disclosing material errors in the financial
statements.
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5.2 Sample Design
The auditors usually do not attempt to directly control
the risk of under reliance.
The risk of over reliance, on the other hand, is of utmost
concern to the auditors. If the auditors assess control to
be lower than it actually is, they will inappropriately
reduce the intensity to their substantive tests.
A warranted reduction in substantive testing lessens the
overall effectiveness of the audit as a means of detecting
material errors in the client's financial statements.
In designing tests of controls, therefore, auditors should
carefully control the risk of over reliance upon internal
control procedures. 19
5.2 Sample Design
In performing substantive tests of account balances,
there are two types of sampling risk:
A. The risk of incorrect rejection of a population. This is
the possibility that sample results will indicate that a
population is materially misstated when, in fact, it is
not materially misstated.
B. The risk of incorrect acceptance of a population. This
is the possibility that sample results will indicate that
a population is not materially misstated when, in fact,
it is materially misstated.
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5.2 Sample Design
The nature of these risks parallels the sampling risks
of tests of control. If the auditors make the first type of
error and incorrectly reject an account balance, their
audit will lack efficiency since they will perform
additional audit procedures that will eventually reveal
that the account balance is not materially misstated.
Thus the risk of incorrect rejection relates to the
efficiency, but not the effectiveness of the audit.
The risk of incorrect acceptance of a population relates
to the effectiveness of the audit in detecting material
errors.
21
Both of (control and substantive )risks have a
significant impact on both the effectiveness and
efficiency of the audit.
The risk of assessing control risk too low and the risk of
incorrect acceptance, each of which may be described as
the beta risk in general statistical terminology, relate
to audit effectiveness. When the auditor reaches either
of these erroneous conclusions, the auditor’s combined
procedures may not be sufficient to detect material
misstatements, and he/she may not have a reasonable
basis for an opinion.
In contrast, the risk of assessing control risk too high
and the risk of incorrect rejection, each of which may be
described as alpha risk in general statistical
terminology, relate to the efficiency of the audit. When
22
either of these erroneous conclusions are reached, the
auditor will increase substantive tests unnecessarily.
5.2 SAMPLE DESIGN
The risk is of primarily concern to auditors; failure to detect a
material misstatement may lead to accusations of negligence
and to extensive legal liability.
Tolerable error is the maximum error in the population that
the auditor is willing to accept and still conclude that the
audit objectives have been achieved.
This means that you will accept a certain number of
occurrences of failure to apply control procedures (by the
client) and conclude that the procedure is operating properly.
Tolerable error in substantive testing is related to the
auditor’s judgment about materiality.
If the tolerable error is small, the sample size will be large,
and vice versa. 23
The END
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5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING
we discussed the need for sufficient, competent
evidential matter as a base of audit report.
As business entities have evolved in size,
auditors increasingly have had to rely up on
sampling procedures as a means of obtaining
evidence.
25
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING
Audit sampling, whether statistical or nonstatistical, is
the process of selecting a group of items (called the
sample) from a large group of items (called the
population) and
using the characteristics of the sample to draw inference
about the characteristics of entire population of items.
The underlying assumption is that the sample will allow
the auditor to make accurate inferences about the
population.
Basic thing to audit sampling is sampling risk – the risk
that the auditors’ conclusion based on the sample might
be difference from the conclusion they would reach if they
examine every items in the population. 26
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING
Sampling risk is reduced by increasing the size of the
sample.
At the extreme, when an entire population is
examined there is no sampling risk.
But. Auditing large samples or the entire population is
costly.
A key element in efficient sampling is to
balance the sampling risk against the
cost of using large samples.
27
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING
Statistical sampling allow the auditors to measure and
control sampling risk through statistical sampling
techniques, the auditors may specify in advance the
sampling risk that they want in their sample result and
then compute a sample size that control sampling risk at
the desired level.
Since the statistical sampling techniques are based on
the laws of probability, the auditors are able to control
the extent of the sampling risk in relying up on sample
results. Thus, statistical sampling may assist auditors
in:
Designing efficient sampling
Measuring the sufficiency of the evidence obtained, and
Objectively evaluating sample results. 28
C ost Benefits
Requires audit judgment to Does not require additional software may
determine an appropriate take less time to plan, select and evaluate
Non sample size and evaluate the the sample
statistical results.
Sampling Does not provide an objective
way to control and measure
sampling risk
The internal audit process begins with establishing
audit objectives, then planning and performing the
internal audit, and then eventually evaluating the
audited results to determine
if the audit objectives have been satisfied,
if supporting internal controls are
adequate,
if the materials reviewed are sufficient to
develop an audit conclusion, and
if there is a need for correctiveaction
based audit recommendations. 30
CON’D
This process of testing, assessing, and then evaluating audit
evidence can be a challenge for many internal auditors.
For example, an internal auditor can review a sample of 100
items and may find one exceptional item (with irregularity)
while the remaining 99 of them do not have any problem.
Should that one internal control problem exception cause
the internal auditor to highlight that one exception as an
overall internal control problem, or should the internal
auditor give that single exception a “pass” and go forward?
There often are no easy answers, but an
experienced internal auditor should be able to
evaluate this audit evidence and make the
appropriate decision. 31
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
Internal auditors make assessments about audit issues
or satisfy their audit objectives through detailed
reviews of what is called audit evidence.
That is, an internal auditor generally does not look at
every item in an area of audit concern to develop
evidence to support an audit.
Rather, the internal auditor examines a limited set of
files or reports and reviews selected sample items to
develop audit conclusions over the entire set or
population of data.
32
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
Example
A review of equipment contracts for a smaller
manufacturer may not involve more than a very
limited number of items where the auditor can perform
a 100% review of the audit evidence on the equipment
contract records.
This approach is much more difficult when internal
audit is faced with a large population of items to
examine—hundreds, thousands, or even more.
33
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
In the early days of internal auditing, 100%
examinations of transactions or documents were common
to assess control procedures compliance.
As enterprises and their processes grew larger and more
complex, this 100% examination approach was often not
feasible, so internal auditors typically selected a sample to
develop an audit conclusion.
In addition, they needed some way to review these large
masses of computerized data.
There is a major internal audit challenge here. An internal
auditor needs a consistent approach to sample a portion of
items from a large population of data and then to draw
audit conclusions based on that limited sample. 34
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
The internal audit sampling challenge is to extract a sample
of items that will be representative of the entire population.
If there are 100,000 transactions and assume that an
internal auditor looks at only 50 of them. His finding on
the 50 samples shows 10 (20% of the sample) with
exceptions or irregularities.
Q Can the auditor conclude that 20% of the entire population
of transactions, or 20,000, are exceptions?
A This audit conclusion is true only if the sample of 50 drawn
is representative of the entire population.
Audit sampling techniques can help an internal auditor
determine an appropriate sample size and develop an opinion
for this type of audit task. 35
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL AUDIT
CON’D
Audit sampling has two major branches:
statistical and nonstatistical.
Using the results of audit tests on the statistically
sampled items, an internal auditor can then express an
opinion on the entire group.
For example, an auditor could develop a statistical
sample of items in an inventory, test items from that
sample for their physical quantity or value, and then
express an opinion on the value or accuracy of the
entire inventory.
36
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
When planning any audit that includes the examination
of a large number of transactions or other evidence, an
internal auditor should always ask the question:
Should I use audit sampling? The correct answer here is
often not just a simple yes or no but may be complicated
by such factors:
the number or nature of items to be sampled,
a lack of technical expertise or computer
software availability to do the sampling,
a fear of the mathematical focus of sampling,
and
the potential nonacceptance of the sampling
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results by management.
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
Sampling also is a term that is frequently
misused by internal auditors.
All too often, when faced with a file cabinet
filled with hundreds of documents to review,
the auditor pulls out one or two items from the
front and performs audit procedures based on
this limited selection.
While this examination of two items may be
appropriate for an audit observation, an
internal auditor should not try to draw
conclusions for the entire population based on 39
that limited sample.
5.3 AUDIT SAMPLING AND INTERNAL
AUDIT CON’D
Step To develop an audit conclusion over these data,
internal auditors need a process where they should:
Understand the total population of items of
concern and develop a formal sampling plan
regarding the population of items.
Draw a sample from the population based on
that sample selection plan.
Evaluate the sampled items against audit
objectives.
Develop conclusions for the entire population
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based on audit sample results.
WHY USE AUDIT SAMPLING IN INTERNAL AUDIT ?
While we often hear reports on the results of statistical
sampling techniques
in consumer research,
government studies, or qualitycontrol testing on a
production assembly line, audit sampling can be a very
effective tool for internal auditors as well.
While 100% examinations work for limited amounts of
audit evidence, internal audit almost always must
review a sample—either very large or small—of the
audit evidence.
The internal auditor would then draw an audit
conclusion based on the results of that sample.
42
REASONS THAT ENCOURAGE THE USE OF AUDIT SAMPLING AND
STATISTICAL SAMPLING IN PARTICULAR INCLUDE:
Conclusions may be drawn regarding an entire population of
data: If a statistical sampling method is used, information can be
projected accurately over the entire population without
performing a 100% check on the population, no matter how large.
This technique typically results in a strong audit position and
significant audit savings.
Sample results are objective and defensible: Internal control
errors often occur on a random basis over the total items subject to
error, and each error condition should have an equal opportunity of
selection in an audit sample.
Less sampling may be required through the use of audit
sampling: Using mathematicsbased statistical techniques,
internal auditors often do not need to increase the size of a sample
directly in proportion to the size of the population to be sampled.
By using statisticsbased sampling procedures, less testing may be
44
required.
CON’D
Statistical sampling may provide for greater accuracy
than a 100% test: When voluminous amounts of data items
are counted in their entirety, the risk of significant clerical or
audit errors increases. However, a small sample typically
receives very close scrutiny and analysis.
Audit coverage of multiple locations is often more
convenient: Audits can be performed at multiple locations
with small samples taken at individual sites to complete an
overall sampling plan. In addition, an audit using
comprehensive statistical sampling may be started by one
auditor and continued by another.
Sampling procedures can be simple to apply: with the
availability of laptop computer–based software packages,
audit sampling has been simplified. 45
CON’D
Despite the advantages of audit sampling, an internal
auditor must keep in mind that exact information cannot be
obtained about a population of items based on just a sample,
whether it is judgmental or statistical.
It is only by making a 100% test and following good audit
procedures that an internal auditor can obtain exact
information.
With nonstatistical, judgmental sampling, information
is obtained only about those items examined.
With statistical sampling, regardless of the number of items
examined, positive information can be obtained about all of the
items in the population within a level of statistical confidence.
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5.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AUDIT SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
The sampling techniques used in auditing may be
classified into judgmental and statistical audit
sampling—both important internal audit tools.
A. Internal Audit Judgmental Sampling
As its name implies, this approach requires an
internal auditor to use his or her best judgment to
design and select a sample.
No statistical decision rules are used, and the auditor
selects only a sampling plan approach that will
provide a large enough sample to test the audit
objectives, such as whether the internal controls
reviewed are operating properly or if the procedures
examined are being followed. 47
5.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AUDIT SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
For internal auditors, the methods for a judgmental
sample selection may take many forms, including:
A. Fixed percentage selection: An examination of a
fixed percentage—such as 10%—of the items or dollars
in an audit population. These sample items are often
selected haphazardly.
B. Designated attribute selection: A selection of all
or part of the items active during a time period,
such as one month in an audit covering a year’s
transactions or select all items having a common
characteristic, such as all accounts ending in a
particular letter of the alphabet.
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5.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AUDIT SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES CON’D
C. Largevalue selection: A selection for audit review
of just those items with large monetary or other
significant balances.
D. Designated area selection: An examination of only
items readily available, such as those stored in a
particular file drawer.
E.Other selected attribute selection: A review of
sensitive items only or items with some other attribute
of audit concern.
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5.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AUDIT SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
When planning a review based on judgmental
samples, an internal auditor should make three
judgmental sampling decisions.
I. First, the internal auditor must develop a method of
selection and decide what types of items to examine.
II. The size of the sample is the second audit judgment
decision. The sample size should be reasonable
compared to the entire population. Too small a sample will
not represent the overall population, while a toolarge
sample may be too timeconsuming or otherwise expensive
to evaluate.
III. The third decision is how to interpret and report
the audit results from the limited judgmental sample.
Avoid ambiguous audit report conclusions based on
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incomplete judgmental samples.
B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING
Statistical sampling is a powerful tool that allows
an internal auditor to project the results of an
audit sample over the entire population with a
strong degree of accuracy and confidence.
Based on the rules of probability, statistical sampling
requires the use of established mathematical selection
techniques with results that can be projected over the
entire population in a manner that will be accepted by
the courts, government regulators, and others.
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B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING
CON’D
Statistical sampling once was a complex internal audit process
requiring a high degree of mathematical and computational skills.
Software tools available today eliminate many of these
difficulties.
The most common statistical measures for looking at data are
the mean,
median,
mode,
range of data values,
variance,
the standard deviation, and
the skewness of the data.
Although these centraltendency measures can be calculated
today by pressing a function key on a business calculator, an
internal auditor should understand their meaning, use, and how
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they are calculated.
B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING CON’D
As a first step for audit sampling, an internal auditor
should develop a sampling plan that will allow each item
in a population to have an equal probability of selection.
Doing this involves a much more precise approach than
used in judgmental sampling approaches.
The plan should attempt to remove any bias in the
selection of items to ensure that they are representative of
the total population.
The sampling plan to be used should be clearly
documented and discussed with area management, who
with their knowledge of the items to be reviewed may
suggest adjustments to the sampling plan.
The development of a sampling plan is an important for
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step for any audit sample.
B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING CON’D
There are four common methods for selecting an audit
sample: random number, interval, stratified, and cluster
selection.
1. Random Number Audit Sample Selection:
Items here are selected at random, with each in the
population having an equal chance to be selected as a
part of the sample.
The idea is to have a starting and ending number for all
items in the population, determine the sample size, and
then select random numbers based on that sample size.
This is a convenient process with, for example, a
population of 1,000 invoices where it is easy to identify
each by a number. 56
B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING CON’D
2. Interval Selection Audit Sample Selection or
Systematic Sampling:
This requires the selection of individual items based on
uniform intervals from the items in the total
population.
This technique is especially useful for monetary unit
sampling where an internal auditor develops a sample
by selecting every nth item in the population, such as
from an inventory listing.
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B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING CON’D
3. Stratified Selection Audit Sample Selection:
In a stratified selection audit sample selection, a
population is divided into two or more subgroups,
with each subgroup handled independently as a
separate population.
The justification for stratification may be that one
stratum has significantly different characteristics, and
internal audit may wish to evaluate that subgroup on a
more individual and precise basis.
Internal audit might decide that all items in the
population with balances greater than $10,000 should
be examined 100%.
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B. STATISTICAL SAMPLING CON’D
4. CLUSTER SELECTION AUDIT SAMPLE SELECTION:
Samples are pulled by systematically selecting
subgroups or clusters from the total population.
Cluster selection is useful when items are filed in
shelves or in drawers, and it is physically more
convenient to select subgroups based on the
physical shelf area or individual file drawers.
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C. OTHER AUDIT SAMPLING APPROACHES
An internal auditor can take several audit
sampling approaches depending on the audit’s
objectives, whether it will be based on tests of
compliance, financial statement controls, or any
special conditions.
The four most common approaches are
attributes sampling,
variables sampling,
monetary unit sampling, and
discovery sampling.
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1.ATTRIBUTES SAMPLING
Attributes sampling measures the extent or level of
occurrence of various conditions or attributes—in
other words, to assess internal controls.
For example, an internal auditor might want to
test for the attribute of whether invoice
documents have received proper approval signatures.
Attributes or characteristics can be applied to any
physical item, financial record, internal procedure,
and operational activity.
At tributes sampling often measures compliance
with a designated policy, procedure, or
established standard, and it is a test for
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internal controls.
2.VARIABLES SAMPLING
Variables sampling deals with the size of a
specified population, such as account balances or
tests in individual sample items.
Here the auditor’s focus is on “how much” as
opposed to the yesorno focus of attributes
sampling.
The objective of variables sampling is to project
total estimated quantities for some account or
adjustments to the account on the basis of the
auditor’s statistical sample.
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3. DISCOVERY SAMPLING
is similar to the nonstatistical judgmental
sampling discussed earlier.
Discovery sampling is used when an internal
auditor wants to pull a sample from a large
volume of data without the statistical
processes associated with variables and
attributes sampling.
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4. MONETARY UNIT SAMPLING
Monetary Unit Sampling: Attributes sampling
measures the extent of some condition, and variables
sampling estimates the value of an account.
Variables sampling can be further divided into the
more traditional stratified sampling methods, and
what is frequently called monetary unit sampling.
Monetary unit sampling is a technique to determine if a
financial account is fairly stated, and it is a good
method for estimating the amount of any account
overstatements.
This technique is alternatively called monetary unit
sampling, dollarunit sampling, or probabilities
proportional to size (PPS) sampling. 64
4. MONETARY UNIT SAMPLING
The concept is that every dollar or unit of currency
in an account is treated as a member of the
population and each has a chance of selection. A
$1,000 voucher for an account will have 1,000
units of population while a $100 voucher for the
same account will have 100.
Thus, a $1,000 item in a population has 1,000
times greater chance of sample selection than a $1
item.
This is a very popular form of sampling for public
accounting firms. Although various texts and
sources use different names, here we call this 65
approach monetary unit sampling.
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